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The City of the Seven Hills 



A Book of Stories from the History of 
Ancietit Rome 



BY 



CAROLINE H. HARDING, A.B. 

AND 

SAMUEL B. HARDING, Ph.D. 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN INDIANA UNIVERSITY 

Authors of ''Greek Gods, Heroes and Men'* 



CHICAGO 

SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 

1902 



THF t JBRARY •F 
Xwo Co*»i« RECEive* 

MAR. 12 1902 

OUPVRIOHT ENTRY 

CLASSY XXc Hm. 

COPY a 



COPYRIGHT, 1898, 
BY SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 

COPYRIGHT, 1902, 
BY SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 



TYPOGRAPHY BY 
MARSH, AITKKN <fe CURTIS COMPANY 



PREFACE. 

In this volume, the attempt has been made to give 
a picture of the life and history of the Roman people. 
So far as it has been feasible, this has been done by 
means of biographical sketches, selected so as to be 
illustrative of the Roman character, its virtues and its 
faults. In this way, it has also been possible to weave 
into the narrative a more vivid description of the daily 
life and customs of the men, women, and children of 
Rome, than would have been the case under any other 
method of treatment. In the last chapter, an attempt 
is made to relate the old Rome to modern life through 
a description of some existing remains, and to point 
out in a few words the way in which the ancient city 
was merged in the Rome of to-day. 

In a work designed for young children, as is this one, 
it seems desirable that the brutal element of Roman 
character and history should be eliminated so far as is 
possible; and to this end, much has been omitted from 
the narrative which might properly find a place in a 
history of Rome for High School use. The limited 

view which is here offered, however, is a fundamen- 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

tally true one, and it may easily be developed into the 
accurate historical idea when the proper time comes 
for more advanced study. 

The book is designed especially for use as a supple- 
mentary reader for children of the sixth and seventh 
grades. Inasmuch, however, as some teachers may 
wish to use it for formal instruction in history, the 
book has been equipped with maps, summaries of 
chapters, and a chronological analysis of Roman his- 
tory. In this way, it is hoped that its use as a 
text-book may be facilitated without robbing it of its 
attractiveness as a reader. 

Bloomington, Indiana. 
November, 1898. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Preface . 

List of Illustrations .... 

I. The Peninsula of Italy .... 

II. Romulus and the Beginning of Rome . 

III. NuMA, the Peaceful King .... 

IV. The Last of the Kings .... 
V. The War with Lars Porsena . 

VI. The Stories of Mucius and Clcelia * , 

VII. Secession of the Plebeians .... 

VIII. The Story of Coriolanus 

IX. The Family of the Fabii .... 

X. The Victory of Cincinnatus . 

XI. The Laws of the Twelve Tables 

XII. How Camillus Captured Veii 

XIII. The Coming of the Gauls . . . . 

XIV. The Gauls in Rome 

XV. Rebuilding the City 

XVI. The New Rome 

XVII. The War with Pyrrhus . . . . 

XVIII. Rome and the Carthaginians 

XIX. The War with Hannibal . . . . 

XX. Rome Conquers the World . 

XXI. The Gracchi and Their Mother 

XXII. The Wars of Caius Marius . 

XXIII. Cicero, the Orator 

XXIV. Julius Caesar, the Conqueror of Gaul 
XXV. C^SAR and the Beginning of the Empire 

XXVI. Rome in the time of Augustus 

XXVII. The Empire after Augustus 

XXVIII. The Christians and the Empire 

XXIX. The Remains of Rome 

Summaries of Chapters .... 
Chronological Outline . . . . 
Index 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

The Forum . . Frontispiece 

Italy (Map) 9 

Jupiter ....... 21 

Vestal Virgins 25 

The City of Rome (Map) . 28 

Lictors 34 

Roman Plough .... 66 

Juno 80 

Gallic Soldier 85 

The Capitol at Rome . . 96 
Standard Bearer . . . . loi 
Ruins of a Roman Aqueduct 109 
A Roman Road . . . .111 
A Roman Soldier . . . .119 

Naval Battle 130 

Hannibal 138 

Scipio Africaiius . . . .145 
Roman Empire (Map) . .148 
Triumphal Procession . .155 
Roman Books and Writing 
Materials ...... 174 



Sulla 

Cicero .... 
Circus Maximus . 
Julius Caesar . . 
Chariot Race . . 
Gladiator Fight . 
Roman Soldiers . 
Caesar's Triumph 
Augustus Caesar . 
Roman Toga . . 
Vergil .... 
Column of Trajan 
Marcus Aurelius . 
A Street in Pompeii 
A Roman House . 
Spoons and Drinking 

from Pompeii . 
Lamp and Stand . 
Drawing on Outer Wall of 

House in Pompeii . , . 



Bowl 



171 
179 
182 

184 
189 
190 
202 
206 
213 
216 
221 
225 
227 
243 
245 

247 
248 

249 



The City of the Seven Hills. 



The Peninsula of Italy. 

IF you will look at the map of Europe you will see 
three great peninsulas extending from its southern 
coast into the Mediterranean Sea. The one farthest to 
the east is Greece, and upon the west, with the Atlan- 
tic washing its rocky shore, is Spain. Italy lies between 
the two, and it is with a people that lived and ruled 
there many centuries ago that these stories have to do. 
As everyone must notice at the first glance these 
countries differ widely from one another in several 
ways. Greece is not nearly so large as Spain or Italy, 
and it has a number of smaller peninsulas running out 
from it into the surrounding seas. Spain is the largest 
of the three and is almost square in outline, with few 
bays or capes along its coast. Occupying a position 
between the others, Italy is also less extreme in size 
and shape. It is larger than Greece and smaller than 
Spain, and its coast line is neither so broken nor so 
regular as that of the one or the other. In form Italy 
is long and slender, being shaped very much like a 

7 



8 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

huge boot. On the map you will see it lying in the 
midst of the Mediterranean, its toe to the south and 
its heel to the east, and, with the island of Sicily, 
dividing the sea into two great basins. 

Italy lies about as far north on the earth's surface as 
the State of New York, but it has a very different cli- 
mate from that latitude in America. To the north of 
it is a high chain of mountains, which protects its 
sunny plains from the colder winds, while the sea 
about it is warmed by hot currents of air from the 
deserts of Africa. The winters are therefore milder 
and the summers warmer than with us, so that the 
orange and the olive grow in latitudes where our coun- 
try produces only pears and apples. 

The surface of Italy varies greatly in different parts 
of the peninsula. In the north between the steep 
wall of the Alps and the mountains to the south, lies 
a broad, well-watered plain larger than the State of 
Indiana. Here we find a most fertile land, with fields 
of grain and groves of waving mulberry trees. Here, 
too, is the largest stream of Italy, the River Po, which 
draws its waters from the melting snows of the Alps 
and flows eastward to the Adriatic Sea. 

South of the basin of the Po we come again to a 
mountain range — the Apennines. These mountains 
are not so lofty as the Alps, but still are higher in 
many places than the tallest peaks of our Appalachi- 
ans. From where they leave the Alps they sweep east- 
ward almost across the country; then gradually curve 
to the south and extend to the end of the peninsula. 
Throughout the range many peaks are found covered 
to the top with forests of chestnut, oak, and pine. 



THE PENINSULA OF ITALY. 9 

Pleasant valleys lie between the paraUel ridges of the 
chain, and at the foot of the mountains are broad 




uplands where flocks and herds find pasturage in the 
driest summer. 

On the eastern side of this wooded mountain range 



10 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

the slope is short, and the land is broken by deep 
gorges through which the rivers have cut their way to 
the Adriatic. Here only those can make their homes 
who live mostly on the products of their sheep ^and 
cattle. On the western slope the descent is more gen- 
tle, and broad, fertile plains lie between the mountains 
and the sea. The people do not have to depend so 
largely on their flocks here, for they can raise grain, 
and grow vineyards; and, in the south, groves of 
orange, fig, and olive trees may be seen. 

As the peninsula is so narrow and the slope so abrupt, 
you could not expect to find long, deep rivers, in that 
part of the country which lies south of the River Po. 
Many streams rise in the mountains and flow down to 
the sea, but they are most of them short, and few are 
deep enough to bear a ship, or even a boat of large 
size. They vary, however, according to the season of 
the year. Sometimes, after the rains have begun to 
fall, or when the snow is melting on the tops of the 
mountains, they are rushing torrents which sweep 
everything before them. Then, again, when the sum- 
mer heats have come, and the rains have ceased, they 
shrink to little, harmless streams, or dry away alto- 
gether. The only river, south of the valley of the Po, 
which is deep enough to bear boats and small ships 
throughout the year is the Tiber; but even this changes 
with the seasons. It has been called "the yellow 
Tiber," because its swift current is so often colored 
with floods from heavy rains and melting snows upon 
the mountain sides. 

With such a marked difference between the eastern 
and western slopes of Italy it would not be difficult to 



THE PEN INS ULA O F IT A LY, 11 

guess where the first cities were built. From early- 
times the western side was dotted with little towns, 
some of them so well located that people have been 
content to go on building and living in them for 
more than twenty centuries. There were also ancient 
cities on the shores of the wide plain that borders 
the gulf on the south. But in those days, as now, there 
were few towns on the rocky eastern coast; and even 
to the north, upon the low sandy islands at the mouth 
of the Po, where Venice now stands, there were then 
only the homes of a few scattered fishermen. 
• As you know, Italy is now the seat of a nation 
united under the government of one king. But at the 
time to which the first stories of the country go back, 
about seven hundred and fifty years before Christ, 
there was no kingdom of Italy and no Italian nation. 
Then there were only separate groups of people estab- 
lished here and there, those nearest together being dis- 
tantly related perhaps, but having very little to do with 
each other in spite of that. They knew much less 
about their country than we do now, for there were no 
books then to tell them about it, and in every direction 
the mountains, the rivers, or the sea hemmed them in, 
and made traveling so difficult that they could not well 
see it for themselves. So it happened that most of 
these peoples were acquainted only with the groups 
that lived close by them; and they were interested 
only in their own little city, with their farms and pas- 
ture-lands about it. It would not have been possible 
at that time to have had one ruler for the whole penin- 
sula as there is now. Instead, each little town had its 
own king, who governed his people in time of peace 



12 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

and led them in war, when they fought against their 
neighbors. 

These cities were always built on a hill or in some 
high situation that could easily be defended against 
their enemies. There they placed their fort, or 
citadel, and the rest of the town would cluster about 
it. The people would go out into the surrounding 
country to cultivate their farms and tend their cattle, 
but to this spot they always retreated in time of dan- 
ger. Every town lived more or less to itself, obeying 
its own king, fighting its own battles, and controlling 
a few miles of land about it. 

In very early times such a city lay on the south bank 
of the Tiber, about twenty miles from the sea. It was 
called Rome, and at first was probably not very 
different from many other towns in Italy. As time 
went on, however, it became much greater than its 
neighbors. It conquered first the cities that lay near- 
est to it, then those farther and farther away until it 
had made the whole of Italy its own. After this it 
reached out and conquered all the countries about the 
Mediterranean, and, in a certain sense, became what 
it has often been called, *'the Mistress of the World." 



ROMULUS AND THE BEGINNING OF ROME, 13 



II 

Romulus and the Beginning of Rome. 

WE do not know just when, or how, or by whom 
the beginning of Rome was made. It hap- 
pened so long ago, and there was so little writing in 
those early days, that no account, given at the time, 
has come down to us. Indeed, it is likely that nobody 
then dreamed that the world would ever care to know 
how this little city was commenced. 

But, after Rome had begun to grow, and to conquer 
her neighbors, and people had begun to read and 
write, the Romans themselves began to be curious to 
know about the beginning of their town. It was too 
late to find out certainly then, for the persons who had 
lived at the time that it was founded were long dead 
and forgotten. But the Romans continued to wonder 
about it, and finally they made up many stories of the 
early years of their city, which they came to accept as 
true and have handed down to us. 

According to these stories, the first settlers at Rome 
came from a little city named Alba Longa, and this 
was the way in which they happened to leave that 
place and settle at Rome. The rightful king of Alba 
Longa had been put out of power by his brother. 
Then this brother had killed the true king's sons, 
and shut up his daughter in prison, where twin 
sons were born to her. When her cruel uncle heard 



14 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

this, and saw how large and strong the children were, 
he was much troubled; for he feared that, if they 
should grow up to be men, they might some day take 
his stolen throne away from him. He determined, 
therefore, to put them to death; so he took the sleep- 
ing children in the wooden trough which served as 
their cradle, and gave them to a servant, telling him 
to drown them in the River Tiber. 

The river at this time was overflowing its banks, and 
the main current ran so swift and strong that the man 
was afraid to go near the bed of the stream. For this 
reason, he set the trough down in the shallow water at 
the river's edge, and went his way. The children 
floated gently in this strange boat to a place where 
seven low hills rose upon the southern bank of the 
stream. The flood was now going down rapidly; and 
at the foot of a wild fig tree, which grew at the base 
of one of these hills, the cradle at last caught in a vine 
and came safely to land. 

In this way the children escaped drowning, but they 
were still alone and uncared for, far from the homes 
of men. Soon, however, they were provided for in a 
wonderful manner. When they began to cry of hun- 
ger, a mother wolf that had lost her cubs came to 
them, and gave them milk, and a woodpecker flew 
down from the trees bringing them food. For some 
time these wild creatures were the children's only 
nurses, but at last a shepherd of Alba Longa, who 
had often watched the wolf coming and going from 
the place, found the boys and saw how they had 
been cared for. The Italians of that time thought 
that wolves and woodpeckers were sacred to Mars, 



ROMULUS AND THE BEGINNING OF ROME. 15 

their god of war; so this shepherd believed that the 
children were favorites of that deity. Full of this 
thought, he carried them to his little hut, where his wife 
took charge of them as though they had been her own. 

The children were named Romulus and Remus by 
the shepherd people, and as the years passed they 
grew up strong and brave, with spirits that nothing 
could subdue. Whenever there was a hunting party, 
or a contest in running or wrestling, or a struggle with 
robbers who tried to drive off their flocks and herds, 
Romulus and Remus were sure to be among the leaders 
of the shepherd bando 

They won great fame among their companions, but 
they also gained the hatred of evil-doers. At last, 
some lawless men, in revenge, seized Remus at a fes- 
tival, and bore him to the false king of Alba Longa, 
charging him with robbery. There the true king saw 
the young man, and, struck with his appearance, ques- 
tioned him about his birth; but Remus could tell him 
little. In the meantime, the shepherd who had found 
the boys told Romulus the whole story of the discovery 
of Remus and himself; and Romulus gathered together 
a company of his friends, and hurried to the city to 
save his brother. In this he soon succeeded; and then 
the two brothers joined together to punish the cruel 
king of Alba Longa, and to set their newly-found 
grandfather on his throne once more. 

After they had accomplished this the brothers were 
not content to remain in Alba Longa, for they wished 
to be rulers wherever they might be. As there were 
now more people in Alba than could live comfortably 
within its walls, it was decided to begin a new city 



16 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

under the leadership of Romulus and Remus; and the 
two brothers chose a location near the fig tree where 
they had been found as children by their foster-father. 

This was an excellent place for a city. On the 
nearest hill, which was called the Palatine, they could 
build their fort; and at its foot were valleys in which 
they could pasture their sheep and cattle. The River 
Tiber was near at hand, for their rude boats to come 
and go upon; and if, at any time, the city should 
grow too large for this one small hill, there were the 
six others close by to receive the overflow of people. 

After Romulus and Remus had decided upon the 
place for their town, a difficulty arose. A new city 
must have a founder who should give his name to it; 
but which of the brothers should have this honor? As 
they were of the same age, and could not settle the 
matter by giving the honor to the elder, they agreed 
to leave the choice to the gods of the place. So each 
took his stand upon one of the hills to receive a sign 
by watching the flight of birds. Remus saw six vul- 
tures from his hill-top; but Romulus, a little later, 
saw twelve. This was thought to be a better sign 
than that of Remus; so Romulus became the founder 
of the new city, and it was called Rome after him. 

The new ruler first marked off the boundaries of the 
city by hitching cattle to a plough and drawing a deep 
furrow around the hill. After this had been done they 
raised a wall about the place and Romulus invited to 
his new town all who might wish to come and settle 
there. He soon had a strong company of men about 
him, for many of his rude shepherd friends and many 
of the youths of Alba joined him. Then as the 



ROMULUS AND THE BEGINNING OF ROME, 17 

report of the new town spread among the neighboring 
cities, men from other places, slaves as well as free- 
men, joined him from time to time. 

But though the little city was growing sturdily there 
was one thing that was still lacking. Among all the 
men that came flocking into Rome there were few, if 
any, women. So the town was more like a camp of 
soldiers than a city of homes and families founded to 
endure for years. The men felt this want so keenly 
that at last they seized some of the women of the 
neighboring tribe of the Sabines and bore them into 
Rome to be their wives. 

Of course this bold deed startled and alarmed the 
people around them, and the Romans soon found that 
they must fight to keep the wives they had taken by 
force. The powerful Sabine tribe came marching 
against the city, with their king at their head. First 
a fort which had been built on a hill called the Capitol 
fell into their hands. Then, on the next day, the 
Romans and the Sabines met in battle in the valley 
between the Capitol and the town. For a long time 
the fight raged fiercely; first one army and then the 
other seemed victorious, but neither the Romans nor 
the Sabines would own themselves defeated. 

At last, the captive Sabine women took courage to 
interfere and stop the bloodshed. They threw them- 
selves between the weapons of their relatives on the 
one side, and of their newly-made husbands on the 
other; and they implored them to stop the fight, as it 
must bring sorrow to them, no matter who became the 
victors. Then the battle ceased, and the leaders of 
the Sabines, moved by the appeal of the women, came 



18 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

forward to make peace. It was agreed that the 
Romans should keep their wives, and that the Sabines 
should go to Rome to live, where the two peoples 
were to share the city between them. 

From this time the new town grew rapidly, and it 
soon spread to others of the seven hills by the Tiber. 
Its citizens became so strong in war that none of their 
neighbors could harm them. In war and in peace, 
Romulus was their leader, and was greatly beloved by 
the people. According to the old stories, he made 
many laws for them and established many good cus- 
toms. He ordered that every eighth day there should 
be a market held in Rome, at which the country folk 
might sell their produce; and he himself heard cases 
and dealt out justice there in the market place. To 
aid him in the government, he formed an assembly of 
the older and wiser men, which was called the Senate, 
or the council of the city fathers. 

Thus Romulus ruled his people for thirty-seven years. 
Then, one day, as he was reviewing the army, a sudden 
darkness fell upon the earth, and a mighty storm of 
thunder and lightning came upon them. When this 
had passed, and the air was clear once more, Romulus 
could nowhere be seen. While the Romans were seek- 
ing their king, and mourning for him, a citizen came 
forward, who said that, in the midst of the storm, he 
had seen Romulus carried, up to heaven in the chariot 
of the war-god. Mars. After that the people ceased to 
mourn for him, for they believed that he had become 
a god; and from that time on they not only honored 
him as the founder of their city, but worshiped him as 
one of the deities of heaven. 



NUMA, THE PEACEFUL KING, 19 



III 

Numa, the Peaceful King. 

AFTER Romulus had been taken from them, the 
Romans could not agree as to who should be 
king in his place. The citizens who had first settled 
there wished to choose a king from their own number 
again, but the Sabines objected to this. They said 
that they had faithfully obeyed Romulus while he 
lived, and that now it was their turn to have a king 
chosen from among themselves. 

For a time the two parties could not come to an 
agreement, and, whilethey were disputing, the Senate 
took the power of king and carried on the govern- 
ment. This, however, did not please the people. 
They said that now they had many kings, instead of 
one, and they demanded that a real monarch should 
be chosen. At last, it was arranged that the first 
citizens should select a ruler from among the Sabines, 
and Numa was then chosen to fill the place of Romulus. 

The new ruler was different from the old one in 
many ways. The first king had been a great soldier, 
and he had trained the people of the city for war; but 
during his reign the men of Rome had little time or 
thought to give to anything else. King Numa was 
convinced that this was not as it should be — that there 
were other things of more importance than the knowl- 



20 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

edge of war and the art of winning battles. He felt 
that the Romans were too harsh and violent, as war- 
like people always are; and he wished to soften their 
manners and make them less rude in thought and deed. 
He made peace with all the enemies of Rome; and, 
during the forty-three years of his reign, there was no 
war. This left the Romans free to till their fields, and 
learn the arts of peace; and to encourage them in this, 
Numa divided among the citizens the lands which 
Romulus had won in battle. 

Numa ruled his people as a wise and peaceful king; 
but, better than this, he also taught the Romans how 
to honor their gods. The Romans believed in many 
gods; almost every thing, and every act, was thought 
by them to be under the control of some deity. In 
later times, when they came to know the Greeks, they 
confused their own gods with those of their new 
acquaintances; and even after this they adopted gods of 
other peoples with whom they came in contact. So 
if you tried to know all the deities that the Romans 
believed in, you would have to learn a long and unin- 
teresting list. But there were a few that held a very 
important place in the life of the people from the 
first, and the worship of these was thought to have 
been established during the reign of Numa. 

The chief of the gods was Jupiter — or Jove — the Sky- 
father, whom they called the "Best'' and "Greatest." 
He sent forth the clouds and ruled the storm, and the 
thunderbolt was his weapon. The Roriians thought 
that he directed the birds whose flight showed the will 
of the gods to men, and that Victory and Good Faith 
were his constant attendants. 



NUMA, THE PEACEFUL KING, 



21 



Next to the great Jupiter the fierce Romans wor- 
shiped their god of battles, the warlike Mars. Strangely 
enough, Mars was also the god who preserved their 
cattle from disease, and their ripening grain from 




JUPITER 

blight and injury. The goddess Juno, as the wife of 
Jupiter, was the queen of the sky. It was she, they 
thought, who cared especially for the Roman women 
and made their children strong and vigorous. Minerva 
was the goddess of wisdom and inventions. She 



22 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

taught men the use of numbers, and each year a priest 
solemnly drove a nail into the temple to keep count 
of the passing years. On her festival the children 
had a holiday, for she was the goddess of schools and 
of all learning. Vesta was the goddess of the fire upon 
the hearthstone, and was worshiped wherever a Roman 
family made its home. 

Last of all, there was a curious god of Beginnings, 
called Janus, whose favor the Romans begged when- 
ever they began anything new. The first month of the 
year was called in his honor "J^^'J^^y*"' ^^ ^^e month 
of Janus. He was especially the god of gateways; and 
when the Romans wished to represent him, they made 
a figure with two faces, to show that, as guardian of the 
gate, Janus must look in both directions. When the 
Romans were at war with any people the gates of his 
temple stood open, but they were closed in time of 
peace. During the reign of Numa, therefore, they 
were fast shut, and this was often recalled by the 
Romans in later times, when grown men could not 
reme'mber ever having seen that gateway closed. 

The Romans already believed in these gods when 
Numa became king, but he showed them more exactly 
how each should be worshiped. He seemed so wise 
in these sacred matters that the Romans came to think 
that he must have been taught by one of the gods 
themselves. It was whispered that he was often seen 
wandering forth to a grove where dwelt a mountain 
spirit, the nymph Egeria, and the people at last 
believed that this spirit loved him and instructed him 
as to what would be pleasing to each of the immortal 
gods. 



HUM A, THE PEACEFUL KING. 23 

One of the things that Numa did was to divide the 
priests into different companies and to give each 
its own share in the worship of the deities. In this 
way, he set apart separate priests for Jove and Mars 
and Romulus; and the chiefs of these priests, together 
with the king, were the high priests of Rome, and 
had charge of all things connected with religion. A 
company of sacred heralds was also formed, whose 
business it should be to make a solemn declaration of 
war when the Romans took up arms against an enemy, 
and to proclaim the treaty of peace when the war was 
at an end. 

There was one of these groups of priests which 
arose in a peculiar way, and had very curious duties. 
These were the "dancing priests" of Mars, and the 
Roman writers say that they dated from the eighth 
year of the reign of Numa. Then a great sickness 
came upon the Romans; and while the people were 
much disheartened on this account, suddenly a shield 
of brass fell from the heavens at the feet of King 
Numa. When he consulted the nymph Egeria concern- 
ing it, she told him that it was the shield of Mars, 
which the god had sent down for the preservation 
of the people; and that it should be kept with the 
greatest care. 

In order to do this King Numa commanded that 
eleven other shields just like this one should be made, 
so that, if an enemy of the Roman people should 
attempt to steal the shield of Mars, he might not be 
able to tell the true one from the false. Then the king 
appointed twelve young men of the noblest families to 
take the shields in charge, and he arranged a yearly 



24 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

festival which they should keep in honor of the pre- 
server of their city. 

Each year, when March — the month of Mars — came, 
these priests were to take the sacred shields, and go 
leaping and dancing through the streets of the city, 
singing old songs in honor of the god. This festival 
lasted for twenty-four days, and each day the proces- 
sion came to an end at some appointed place. Here 
the shields were taken into one of the houses near by, 
and the dancing priests were entertained with a fine 
supper. 

Numa also ordered that whenever a war should break 
out, and it became necessary for a Roman army to 
march to battle, the general should first go to the altar 
of the war-god, and strike the sacred shields, crying: 

* 'Awake, Mars, and watch over us!" 

Then — so the Romans believed — the god would 
answer their appeal by marching unseen before the 
army as it went forth to battle. In later days stories 
were told of threatened defeat, when the god had 
appeared in the form of a valiant young man, encourag- 
ing and strengthening the soldiers, and leading them 
on at last to victory. 

The priestesses of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth 
fire and the home, were as important as these priests 
of Mars. For the worship of this goddess Numa 
formed a company of six young maidens, chosen from 
the noblest families of Rome. It was their duty to 
offer prayers each day in the circular temple of the 
goddess, and, above all, to see that the sacred fire 
which burned upon Vesta's altar, was never allowed 
to die out. 




VESTAL VIRGINS 



26 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

These maidens were called the Vestal Virgins, and 
they entered into the service of the goddess in their 
early childhood. Little girls between the ages of six 
and ten were always selected, and as each one was 
appointed to this great .honor she was taken from her 
father's house to the house of the Vestals, where she 
was to live for thirty years. The first ten years she 
spent in learning the duties of her office. During the 
next ten she practiced what she had learned, and for 
the last ten she taught the newly-made Vestals their 
sacred duties. When the thirty years were past, she 
might leave the Vestals and have a home of her own, 
if she chose; but she rarely did so. Great honor 
was shown her by the Romans, and she was allowed to 
bestow unusual favors; for instance, if a criminal 
chanced to meet a Vestal Virgin on his way to 
imprisonment, he was at once set free. 

In these various ways Numa was thought to have 
arranged the service of the different gods. By the 
religious dances and the processions that he appointed, 
he made their worship attractive to the Romans. 
They followed faithfully the customs that he had estab- 
lished for them with so much thought and care, and 
in the course of time they began to lose some of the 
fierceness that had marked the first rude settlers. But 
this did not come to pass until long after King Numa 
had died peacefully, so honored by all the nations 
about Rome that they sent crowns and offerings to his 
funeral. 



THE LAST OF THE KINGS. 27 

IV 
The Last of the Kings. 

AFTER the death of Numa, the long peace which 
Rome had enjoyed came to an end. Under the 
kings who followed him, the wars with her neighbors 
were renewed, and it was centuries before the gates of 
the temple of Janus again stood closed. These rulers 
were all good warriors, so that the Romans were 
usually successful in their battles, and their lands 
were increased, bit by bit, through their conquests. 
But, above all, the Rornans learned two valuable les- 
sons in these times. They learned to fight bravely 
and well; and to obey their rulers in war and in peace. 

After a number of years, trouble arose between 
Rome and Alba Longa, its mother city. War fol- 
lowed, and the men of Alba were defeated. Then it 
was agreed that the people of that town should leave 
their homes and seek new ones at Rome; and the city 
of Alba Longa was destroyed. 

These settlers from Alba were so numerous that the 
population of Rome was nearly doubled by their com- 
ing. As the city grew, the hills about the Palatine 
were occupied, one after the other, and Rome could 
then truly be called "the City of the Seven Hills.'' It 
became necessary to defend these later parts, also, and 
new walls of stone were built which included all of the 
seven hills. So large was the space which they 
inclosed, that for many hundreds of years the city did 



28 



THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 



not outgrow them; and so well were they built, that 
parts of them are still standing to this day. 

The next step after defending the greater city was 
to improve it. The valleys which lay between the 




hills were low and consequently marshy in places. 
To drain these and make thehi healthful for men to 
dwell in, great sewers were built which emptied their 
waters into the River Tiber. In one of the valleys, 
also, a course was laid out for the chariot races, of 
which the Romans were very fond. 



THE LAST OF THE KINGS. 29 

On the hill called the Capitol, a great temple was 
built in honor of the three gods, Jupiter, Juno, and 
Minerva. This was planned upon such a large scale 
that it covered eight acres of ground, and remained 
the chief center of Roman worship until it was burned 
five hundred years later. Its gates were of brass, cov- 
ered with gold; while the inside was of marble and 
was decorated with gold and silver ornaments. When 
the workmen were laying its foundations, they had to 
remove a number of altars that had already been set 
up there; but the altar of the god of Youth, and that 
of the god of Boundaries, they found could not be 
moved. Then the priests declared this a sign that 
Rome should ever remain young and strong, and that 
her boundaries should never be moved backward. So 
the two altars remained where they had long stood, 
and the workmen carefully inclosed them in the new 
temple, firm in the belief that the prophecy concern- 
ing their city would be fulfilled. 

While this great temple was still unfinished, an old 
woman came one day to the king of Rome. She 
brought with her nine rolls of paper, — "books" the 
Romans called them, though they were quite unlike 
what we know as such. In these rolls were written 
many oracles and prophecies that told how the wrath 
of the gods might be turned away whenever it had 
brought sickness, famine, or other misfortune upon 
the people. She offered to s^U the books to the king, 
but the price she asked seemed so high that he refused 
to buy them. 

At this the old woman went away and burned three 
of the books. Then she returned and offered the king 



30 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

the six that remained, but she demanded for them the 
price which she had before asked for the nine. Again 
he refused to buy. Once more the old woman burned 
three of the books, and came back offering the-king 
the ones that were left for the price that she had at 
first asked for all. 

Conquered by her persistence, the king at last 
yielded. He bought the three remaining books for 
what she asked; and when the temple on the Capitol 
was finished, they were placed in a vault under it for 
safe keeping. After this, whenever any trouble came 
upon the city, one of the first things that the Romans 
did was to consult these books; and the message which 
the priests found in them, the people accepted as the 
voice of the gods. 

After many years, the seventh king sat on the throne 
of Rome, and men called him Tarquin the Proud. He 
was a cruel and wicked man, very different from the 
earliest kings. He had gained his power by blood- 
shed and violence, and he used it like a tyrant. He 
repealed the good laws which had been made under 
the rulers before him, and made others in their place. 
The nobles complained that he did everything accord- 
ing to his own will, and never asked the Senate for its 
advice and assistance. The people, in their turn, 
murmured at the constant wars which he carried on, 
and the hard tasks at which he set them in time of 
peace. At last, all Rome was weary of his rule, and 
the people of the city only needed some one to direct 
them in order to turn against him. 

They found their leader in a noble named Brutus, 
who had suffered much at the hands of the king. His 



THE LAST OF THE KINGS. 31 

brother had been put to death by Tarquin; and Brutus, 
to save himself from a like fate, had been obliged to 
give up his property and seem to be dull and slow of 
mind, so that the king might find nothing in him to 
fear. 

But beneath this mask of stupidity the real Brutus 
was keen and watchful. Once he had been sent as 
the companion of the king's sons when they went to 
consult the great Oracle at Delphi, in Greece. After 
'finishing the business upon which they had gone, the 
young men asked the Oracle which one of them should 
succeed King Tarquin as ruler of Rome. The Oracle 
replied, that he who first kissed his mother upon their 
return should rule the city. The princes hastened to 
draw lots to decide which one of them should have 
that privilege, and so gain the throne, but Brutus 
understood the prophecy better. He pretended to 
stumble and fall, kissing the ground beneath him as 
he did so, for he guessed that the Oracle had not 
meant a person, but the great Earth, the mother of 
them all. 

In spite of the discontent among the citizens, Tar- 
quin might, perhaps, have been king of Rome until 
he died, if it had not been for the great wickedness of 
one of his sons. While the king was away from the 
city, carrying on war with a neighboring people, this 
son, Sextus, caused the death of a noble Roman lady 
named Lucretia. Her husband and her father were 
overcome with grief and rage, and Brutus," who was 
with them, threw off his pretended dulness. He seized 
the bloody dagger that had slain Lucretia, and swore 
with them that he would never rest until the family of 



32 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

Tarquin had ceased to reign at Rome. Then he 
hurried to the city and told the story there. The peo- 
ple were filled with anger, and when the king and his 
sons returned, they found the gates closed against 
them. Their soldiers had already received Brutus 
with joy, and, having lost both army and city, the king 
was obliged to leave the lands of Rome and seek 
refuge among his friends north of the Tiber. 

After they had cast out the Tarquins, the people 
took an oath that they would never, from that time on, 
allow any one to become king in Rome. Then one 
of the first things which they had to do was to find 
some other form of government to take the place of 
the old one. For they knew very well that they must 
have some one in authority over them, or their enemies 
would be able to overcome their army, and King 
Tarquin might seize his throne once more. 

So the people set up a republic. They agreed that 
two men, called consuls, should be elected each year; 
and these consuls, with the Senate, should govern Rome 
in the place of the kings. When the vote was taken 
for the first consuls, it was found that Brutus was one 
of the two men who were elected; so the oracle was 
fulfilled which foretold that he should follow Tarquin 
as ruler of the city. 



THE WAR WITH LARS PORSENA, 33 



V 

The War with Lars Porsena. 

TARQUIN THE PROUD was not content, how- 
ever, to see his kingdom slip from him so easily; 
and the Roman people were soon obliged to fight for 
the right of governing themselves. Their first trouble 
came from within the city itself; and this, perhaps, no 
one had expected. 

There were some of the people of Rome who were 
not pleased at the expulsion of the king, and who 
would have been glad to have him back with them 
again. These persons were young men of high family 
and much wealth, who had been the companions of the 
young princes, and who had enjoyed rights and privi- 
leges under the rule of Tarquin, which were now taken 
away from them. They complained bitterly of this, 
and said that, though the rest of the people had gained 
by having the Tarquins go, they had lost by it. So, 
when the opportunity offered itself, they began work- 
ing selfishly to return the king to power. 

Their chance came when Tarquin sent men back to 
Rome to claim the property which he and his sons had 
left behind them, when they had been driven away. 
While these men were in the city, they made a plot 
with the dissatisfied young nobles to place King 
Tarquin on his throne once more. This was treason 
on the part of the young nobles; but they cared more 



3i 



THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HHLS, 



for their own pleasures than they did for their country. 
However, the plot was discovered by a slave, and from 




LICTORS. 



him the consuls learned of it. When the plotters 
had been seized, it was found that among them were 
the two sons of the consul Brutus himself. 



THE WAR WITH LARS PORSENA. 35 

It was part of the duty of a consul to act as judge in 
the trial of prisoners, and this made the situation 
doubly terrible for Brutus. But he was a true Roman, 
and loved his country even more than he did his own 
children. He took his seat with the other consul, and, 
when the young men were led before the judges, he 
joined in condemning them all to death. Then the 
prisoners were given into charge of attendants of the 
consuls, called lictgrs, who each carried a battle-ax, 
bound into a bundle of rods, as a sign that the consuls 
had the right to punish offenders with flogging and 
with death'itself. They made the erring young nobles 
suffer the full severity of the law, and the Romans 
saw, with admiration and pity, that the stern virtue of 
Brutus did not fail him even when the welfare of his 
country demanded that his sons be put to death before 
his eyes. 

Tarquin was only made more angry and determined 
by the failure of this plot. He now decided that if he 
could not get back his throne by treachery, he would 
try to do so by open war. He went about from city 
to city, begging help from the enemies of Rome to 
bring his people back under his rule once more. No 
matter how often he was refused, or how often he was 
defeated in battle when he did succeed in raising a 
force to lead against the Romans, he was always ready 
to try again. 

At last Tarquin secured the help of Lars Porsena, 
who ruled over a part of Tuscany, as the district is 
called which lies north and west of the Tiber. The 
story of the attack which followed was cherished as 
long as there was a Roman people to glory in the 



36 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

deeds of its heroes, and even within our time an 
English writer chose it for the subject of a stirring 
poem.* In this you may read how 

Lars Porsena of Clusium, 

By the Nine Gods he swore 
That the great house of Tarquin 

Should suffer wrong no more. 
By the Nine Gods he swore it, 

And named a trysting day, 
And bade his messengers ride forth, 
East and west and south and north, 

To summon his array. 

When the Romans heard this news, they were filled 
with dismay; and from all sides the country people 
flocked into the city. Never before had so great a 
danger threatened the place. The Senate and consuls 
prepared as well as they could to meet the attack, and 
tried to hope that they might still be able to defeat 
their enemies. 

Just across the river from Rome was a long, high 
hill. Here the Romans had built a fort as a protec- 
tion to the city; and to connect this with Rome, a 
wooden bridge had long ago been placed across the 
rapid current of the Tiber. If the Romans could hold 
this height and the bridge below it the city would be 
safe. But by a quick march and fierce attack Lars 
Porsena and the Tarquins seized the hilL Then their 
soldiers pushed on to gain the bridge also, while many 
of the Romans who guarded it were struck with fear 
and turned to take refuge in the city. 

* See Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome. 



THE WAR WITH LARS FOR SENA, 37 

At this moment a Roman named Horatius rushed in 
among his countrymen, laying hold of them, and 
standing in the way of their flight. 

**Why do you flee?'' he cried. *'If 3'ou give up the 
bridge there will soon be more of the enemy in Rome 
than here. Break down the timbers with fire and 
sword before you go! I will guard the entrance for 
you as well as one man may." 

At these words the soldiers were seized with shame. 
Two of their number stepped to Horatius's side to 
defend the narrow entrance with him, and the others 
fell to work tearing down the bridge behind them. 
Until the last beams were ready to fall Horatius and 
his comrades stood at the end, holding all the army 
of Lars Porsena in check upon the other side. Though 
many tried to overcome them, no man proved himself 
a match for them. Wounded but unflinching, they 
fought until the bridge began to tremble, and the 
laboring soldiers warned them to return while there 
was still a way. At the call Horatius's companions 
fell back, step by step, but their leader lingered, fight- 
ing to the last. Then just as he had turned to cross, 
with a mighty crash the bridge fell; and he was left, 
cut off among his enemies. 

Alone stood brave Horatius, 

But constant still in mind ; 
Thrice thirty thousand foes before, 

And the broad flood behind„ 
•'Down with him!" cried false Sextus. 

With a smile on his pale face. 
"Now yield thee," cried Lars Porsena; 

"Now yield thee to our grace." 



38 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

Round turned he, as not deigning 

Those craven ranks to see ; 
Naught spake he to Lars Porsena, 

To Sextus naught spake he; 
But he saw on Palatinus 

The white porch of his home ; 
And he spake to the noble river 

That rolls by the towers of Rome. 

* ' O Tiber ! Father Tiber ! 

To whom the Romans pray, 
A Roinan's life, a Roman's arms, 

Take thou in charge this day." 
So he spake, and speaking sheathed 

The good sword by his side. 
And with his harness on his back, 

Plunged headlong in the tide. 

No sound of joy or sorrow 

Was heard from either bank ; 
But friends and foes in dumb surprise 
With parted lips and straining eyes, 

Stood gazing where he sank ; 
And when above the surges 

They saw his crest appear. 
All Rome sent forth a rapturous cry, 
And even the ranks of Tuscany 

Could scarce forbear to cheer. 

But Horatius was weary and wounded from the fight, 
and his armor weighed heavily upon him. Many 
times he seemed sinking in midstream, but each time 
he rose again. At last, he felt the bottom under his 
feet, and safely climbed the other shore. 

The city was saved, and mainly by Horatius. The 
state was grateful to him for his brave deed, and the 
Senate ordered that he should have as much of the 



THE WAR WITH LARS PORSENA, 39 

public land as he could plough around in one day. 
Later his statue was set up in the Forum, but best of 
all was the gratitude which the people showed him at 
the time. Then, when food became scarce because 
of the war with Lars Porsena, the citizens each brought 
to the house of Horatius little gifts of grain and wine, 
so that whatever suffering might come upon them- 
selves, there would still be plenty in the house of the 
man who had saved Rome. And long afterwards we 
can imagine the people relating the story. 

When the goodman mends his armor, 

And trims his helmet's plume ; 
When the good wife's shuttle merrily 

Goes flashing through the loom ; 
With weeping and with laughter 

Still is the story told, 
How well Horatius kept the bridge 

In the brave days of old. 



40 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 



VI 

The Stories of Mucius and Cloelia. 

AFTER Lars Porsena had failed in his attempt to 
seize the bridge over the Tiber his army lay for 
a long time about Rome. He pitched his camp on 
the plains before the walls, and sent in all directions 
for boats to guard the river so that no provisions could 
enter the city. Then companies of his men scattered 
through the Roman territory, plundering and destroy- 
ing as they went. 

The Romans were thus kept closely inside their 
walls, and with them the people from the surrounding 
country who had found shelter there. Porsena and 
the Tarquins rejoiced, for they knew that there would 
soon be a lack of food with so many to consume the 
Roman stores; and sure enough, as the blockade con- 
tinued, corn became scarce and very high in price. 
Still the imprisoned army could not venture forth to 
battle without risking certain defeat against such great 
numbers. The most that was attempted by Rome was 
to capture a band of pillagers, and so put a stop to 
their wandering over the country. This forced inac- 
tion at a time of such great need seemed disgraceful 
to the Roman youths, and they longed, at whatever 
cost, to be again contending with their enemies. 

Lars Porsena was expecting nothing but complete 
victory, when something occurred that daunted him 



THE STORIES OF MUCIUS AND CLCELIA. 41 

and changed his purpose. A young Roman was seized 
in his camp, who had dared to come thither to fight his 
enemies single-handed, since he was not allowed to 
do so with his comrades upon the field of battle. 
When he was brought before Porsena he did not hesi- 
tate to declare his purpose. 

"I am a Roman citizen. My name is Caius Mucins. 
An enemy, I wish to slay an enemy, nor have I less 
resolution to suffer death than to inflict it. To act 
and to suffer with fortitude is a Roman's part. There- 
fore, if you choose to remain here, prepare yourself 
for this peril, — to contend for your life every hour, to 
have the'sword and the enemy at the very entrance to 
your tent. This is the war that we, the Roman youth, 
declare against you.'* 

Then, when the startled king demanded to know 
more of the danger that threatened him, and ordered 
fires to be kindled about the young man if he did not 
explain his words more fully. Mucins only replied: 

"Behold, and see of how little account the body is 
to those who have great ends in view!'' As he 
spoke he thrust his hand into the fire which was burn- 
ing upon an altar near by, and held it there without 
sign of pain or flinching. 

Astonished at this act the king arose from his throne 
and commanded that the young man be removed from 
the altar. 

**You have acted more like an enemy to yourself 
than to me," he said, *T should encourage you to be 
always so brave, if your valor were only shown upon 
the side of my country. 1 now dismiss you untouched 
and unhurt." 



42 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

As though making a return for this kindness, Mucius 
answered: 

"Since courage is so honored by you, O King, I will 
tell you that three hundred of the best of the Roman 
youths have vowed to come after me, each in his turn." 

When Porsena heard this, he realized how hard it 
would be to take Rome if its people were willing to 
give up their lives so unselfishly for their city. He 
sent Mucius back in safety, and offered to make peace 
of his own accord. He agreed to take his army away 
from around the walls of the town, but he demanded 
pledges that the Romans would keep the peace. They 
gave him sons and daughters from the noblest fam- 
ilies, and he took them away with him as hostages, so 
that they might have to fear the punishment of their 
children if they were tempted to break their promises. 

Among the hostages who were obliged to go with 
Lars Porsena was a high-spirited girl named Clcelia. 
She did not like to live as a captive in a strange camp, 
and she made a plan to escape. Porsena's army then 
lay not very far from the city, on the banks of the 
Tiber; and one day Clcelia, taking a number of other 
girls with her, managed to swim across the river, and 
reached Rome in safety. 

When the king was told of the escape of the hos- 
tages, he was very angry, and sent messengers to 
demand that Clcelia and her companions should be 
returned to him. The Romans kept their faith, and 
sent the girls back to Porsena; for they thought that 
they had no right to keep the children simply because 
they had escaped so bravely. When Porsena saw that 
the Romans were acting fairly in the matter, his anger 



THE STORIES OF MUCIUS AND CECELIA. 43 

died away, and he became as generous as they had 
been just. He led all the Roman prisoners before 
Cloelia, and bade her choose half of them to return with 
her to their homes. She selected the youngest of the 
band and was sent back to the city with them in great 
honor, for both the Romans and their enemies united 
in praising her strength and courage. When the war 
was over the city placed her statue, mounted upon a 
horse, at the top of the Sacred Way, — an unusual 
honor for a woman, called forth by an uncommon act 
of bravery. 

Even after Lars Porsena had made peace with the 
Romans, Tarquin was not satisfied that he would never 
again be allowed to rule at Rome. When he found 
that Porsena would no longer help him, he did not 
rest till he had found another king to fight for him. 
Then he marched against Rome once more, with the 
armies of thirty cities at his back. The Romans 
heard with terror of the approach of this great force, 
for they feared that they would not be able to beat 
back so many enemies; and to meet their danger, 
they thought it best to make a change in their gov- 
ernment. 

They had found that sometimes the two consuls 
could not agree, and that the state was weakened by 
their quarrels. So, in order to prevent this from hap- 
pening now, while their freedom was to be fought for 
again, they determined to try another plan. They 
elected one man to fill the place of a king while the 
danger lasted, and they called him a Dictator. Every 
one was to obey him, as though he were a king in 
truth; and when he led the army out to fight against 



44 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

King Tarquin and his friends once more, the people 
hoped that they would win the victory. 

For a time, however, it seemed that they would be 
defeated. The soldiers fought bravely, and the Dicta- 
tor made every effort to win the battle, but in spite of 
this the men were obliged to give way. Then the 
Dictator prayed to the twin gods, Castor and Pollux, 
and vowed to build a temple to them in Rome if they 
would give their help. Even as he prayed, two 
youths, on horses as white as snow, rode to the front 
of the Roman army, and began to press the enemy 
back, driving them at last to their camp. But when 
the Romans had gained their victory, and turned to 
look for the youths who had saved the day for them, 
they could find no sign of them except a hoof-print 
upon a rock, such as could have been made by no 
earthly steed. 

When the army returned to Rome, however, the old 
men and* the women, who had been left in the city, 
had a wonderful story to tell. While they waited in 
the Forum for news of the army, two strangers on 
white horses, covered with the foam of battle, had 
suddenly appeared and ridden to the pool of water by 
the temple of Vesta. There they had dismounted and 
bathed their weary horses, while they told the people 
of the victory of Rome. When one of the men who 
had gathered about them doubted the report which 
they brought — for it seemed too good to be true, — the 
youths had smiled and gently touched his beard with 
their hands; and that which before had been perfectly 
black was changed to the color of bronze. Then 
all had believed the good news; and the youths 



THE STORIES OF MUCIUS AND CECELIA. 45 

had mounted again and ridden away, to be seen no 
more. 

When the Dictator heard this story, he could no 
longer doubt that his prayer had been answered. The 
two youths who had aided the army, and who had 
brought the news of the victory to Rome, could have 
been no other than the gods to whom he prayed. So a 
temple was built to Castor and Pollux, where they were 
said to have washed their horses, and some of its col- 
umns are standing on the spot to-day. 

After this battle, Tarquin the Proud was unable to 
get any one to help him make war on Rome. Two 
years later he died, and after that there were no more 
attempts to restore the rule of the Tarquins in the 
City of the Seven Hills. 



4.6 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 



VII 

Secession of the Plebeians. 

DURING these hundreds of years since the found- 
ing of the city, Rome had been growing stead- 
ily, in spite of many wars with her enemies. It was 
not only that her boys and girls grew up to be men 
and women with children of their own, and in this way 
increased the number of people in the city; many per- 
sons came to Rome from other places and settled there. 
Sometimes they did this because the River Tiber made 
it a good place in which to carry on trade; and often 
they came because upon the well-fortified hills of the 
city they could be safe from robbers. Sometimes, too, 
the Romans would conquer the people of another 
town in battle, and would bring them in a body to 
live at Rome. So from many causes the number of 
the people in the city grew, until it was said that, 
about the time when King Tarquin was driven out, 
there were as many as eighty thousand men who could 
serve in their country's wars if there was need of them. 
This was a good thing for Rome in some ways, but 
from one point of view it was bad. The new people 
and their children were not allowed to take part in the 
government, so the Romans came to be divided into 
two classes. The descendants of the old families were 
called patricians, and they alone could hold the offices 
and become priests. The descendants of the new- 



SECESSION OF THE PLEBEIANS 47 

comers were called plebeians; and, though they could 
own property, carry on business, and sometimes were 
allowed to vote, yet they could not be elected to any 
office and in other ways were not allowed the full 
rights of Roman citizens. 

After King Tarquin was driven away from the city, 
the condition of the plebeians became worse than it had 
been before. The patrician consuls and the patrician 
Senate used their power for the good of their own 
class. The nobles alone were allowed to use the pub- 
lic land, — some of which, you will remember, was 
given to Horatius as a reward. But worse than this 
was the cruel law of debt, which was now enforced 
against the plebeians more harshly than ever before. 

When a poor man returned from fighting in the wars 
of his country, he might find that the crops on his little 
farm outside of Rome had been destroyed by the 
enemy, and his cattle driven off. Then he would be 
obliged to borrow money of some rich patrician to 
help pay his taxes and support his family until another 
harvest could be gathered. But, if war followed dur- 
ing the next summer, as often happened, he would 
have to leave his farm again, and so could not pay his 
debt when he had promised. Then he might be seized 
and put into prison, or even sold as a slave, by the 
man to whom he owed the money. 

In this way, many plebeians suffered from the harsh 
laws, and they became very discontented. At last, 
one day, an old soldier appeared in the market-place 
appealing to the people in his great miser3^ His 
clothes were soiled and torn, and his hair and beard 
had grown long and shaggy over his pale, thin face. 



48 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

But in spite of his pitiful appearance he was recognized 
as a man who had been a brave officer in the army, 
and on his body could be seen many scars which he 
had gained in the battles of Rome. 

"While 1 have been fighting in your wars," he cried, 
* 'the enemy have destroyed the crops upon my land; 
they have burned my house and driven off my cattle. 
The money which I was compelled to borrow, I could 
not pay back. So my farm has been taken from me. 
I have been thrown into prison, and see, here are the 
marks of the whip upon my back!" 

When the people heard his story and saw his 
wretched condition, a great tumult arose. The ple- 
beians rushed upon the houses of the patricians and set 
free the prisoners whom they found in them. Soon, 
men who had suffered likewise gathered from every 
side, and the market-place was filled with angry shouts. 

In the midst of this trouble news came that their 
enemies, the Volscians, were on the march toward 
Rome. At first the plebeians refused to enlist in the 
army, which was called to go out to fight them. When 
they were promised, however, that the laws about 
debts should be changed, they gave in their names 
and marched away to the war. Then, when the Vol- 
scians had been defeated, and the soldiers had returned, 
the patricians refused to change the laws as they had 
promised. After a great deal of trouble, the plebeians 
saw that they must take the matter into their own 
hands, but they did not become enraged and seek to 
gain their rights by burning and killing. You have 
seen that the Romans learned two things under their 
kings, — to fight and to obey. They had come to 



SECESSIOiY OF THE PLEBEIANS. 49 

believe that they must submit to their laws and their 
rulers even if they were cruel and unjust; and, 
although they were now greatly abused, they did not 
think of taking arms against the men who governed 
them. 

''We cannot use force against our consuls," they 
said, "but we will leave the patricians to fight for 
themselves when the next enemy comes marching 
against the city. We will let them receive the wounds 
and bear the evils from which we have been suffering." 

Then they went away, and set up an armed camp on 
the Sacred Mount, which was not far from Rome. 
There they waited quietly for many days, without 
attacking any one and taking only enough food from 
the people around them to keep themselves from 
starving. 

Meanwhile, in Rome, the consuls and the Senate 
were dismayed. The main support of the state was 
gone, and the patricians began to realize how much 
they had depended upon the plebeians for the good of 
the city. There was nothing now to stand between 
them and an enemy, and they trembled to think what 
would become of Rome if an army should march 
against it. When they heard that the men upon the 
Sacred Mount were talking of beginning a new town, 
as Romulus and his companions had done, they felt 
that they must give way, or else ruin their city and 
themselves. At last, they sent one of their number 
out to the people, offering to make terms with them. 
This messenger was a wise and eloquent man, and he 
had been chosen because he was beloved by the com- 
mon people. The plebeians welcomed him to their 



50 THE CITY OF 7 HE SEVEN HILLS, 

camp, and listened to him eagerly. He began by tell- 
ing them a story. 

"Once upon a time," he said, *'the other parts of 
the human body began to grumble because they had 
all the work to do, while the stomach lay idle in their 
midst, and enjoyed the results of their labors. So 
they agreed that the hands should not carry food to 
the mouth, or the mouth receive it, or the teeth chew 
it. In this way, they thought to starve the stomach 
into submission. But soon they found that the differ- 
ent members, and even the entire body itself, began 
to grow weak and thin, and that, the more they starved 
the stomach, the weaker they all became. Then they 
began to see that the service of the stomach was by 
no means a small one; that it not only received nour- 
ishment, but supplied it to all the parts, and that the 
members of the body could not themselves live and do 
their work without it." 

As you can easily see, the messenger meant to show 
the people, by this fable, that the inhabitants of a city 
form one great body, with each class depending upon 
every other for its welfare. The people listened 
patiently to him, and saw the truth in what he said. 
In the end, they returned to Rome, but only after the 
patricians had agreed that, from this time on, the 
plebeians should have a number of officers of their own, 
called tribunes, to protect them. 

These tribunes were given very high powers. When 
anything was being done, even if it were by the con- 
suls themselves, they could step forth and say, 
**Veto!" which means, 'T forbid it!" and this com- 
mand could check the action of the mis^htiest men in 



SECESSION OF THE PLEBEIANS. 51 

Rome. The life and safety of the tribunes were pro- 
tected by the state, and during the year that they held 
office, they always slept in their own houses in the 
city, with their doors open day and night, so that no 
one might seek their aid in vain. 

With the tribunes to help them in their difficulties, 
the common people were relieved of many of their 
troubles. But still the struggle between the patricians 
and the plebeians lasted for nearly two hundred years 
longer, and did not cease until the plebeians had been 
given equal rights in the government with the patri- 
cians. Through all this long struggle there was very 
little bloodshed, and there was never war between the 
two classes. Even when the struggle was at its fiercest, 
the patricians and plebeians would often put aside their 
own quarrels, and march out, side by side, to fight the 
enemies of their city. 

In these contests the Romans learned something 
better than how to fight battles successfully, — they 
learned to govern themselves. The patricians always 
held out for their rights just as long as they could, but 
when they were beaten, they knew how to give way 
and make the best of it. From these struggles the 
whole people learned obedience and self-control, and 
so became fit to rule themselves, and other lands also, 
when they grew strong enough to conquer them. 



52 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 



VIII 

The Story of Coriolanus. 

NOT long after the people had gained their tribunes 
to protect them, a noble lady, named Veturia, 
lived in Rome. She was a widow, and had but one 
son, Caius Marcius, whom she loved very dearly. 
From his babyhood, Caius was a strong, brave boy, 
and his mother had every reason to be gratified with 
him, except for one fault. He had a violent temper 
which he never learned to control; and, in the end, 
this brought great trouble upon both his mother and 
himself. 

Caius was proud of his mother, and proud of his 
station in life as a member of the highest class in the 
city. From his very boyhood he tried to make himself 
worthy of both. At that time, almost the only train- 
ing of a young Roman was for war, and the stories say 
that Caius labored so faithfully to learn the use of 
weapons, and to make his body strong, that there was 
soon no youth in the city who could equal him. 

At last, the time came when Caius Marcius went to 
his first battle, and in this he proved himself to be 
a good fighter, although he was still almost a boy. 
He came back to his mother with a crown of oak 
leaves upon his head, — a distinction by which the 
Romans honored those of their soldiers who had not 
only fought bravely in battle, but who had also sue- 



THE STORY OF CORIOLANUS, 53 

ceeded in saving the life of a Roman citizen. You 
may be sure that the heart of the lady Veturia was glad 
and proud, when she saw her son riding home to her 
from his first battle, with the wreath of honor upon his 
brow. But she had still greater cause to rejoice later, 
for, as time went on, and Marcius was called to fight 
for his city again and again, she never once saw him 
return without honors and rewards. 

At one time, when Marcius was fighting with the 
Roman army, they were besieging the city of Corioli, 
in the country of the Volscians. As the soldiers lay 
camped about the city, they heard that a large force 
was marching to attack them from the rear. The con- 
sul, who was leading the Romans, did not wish to be 
caught between the walls of Corioli and a fresh army, 
and thus to be engaged on both sides at once. So he 
divided his force into two parts, and left the smaller 
to watch the town, while he marched against the army 
of the Volscians with the other. 

When the people of Corioli saw that only a portion 
of the Roman army was left to besiege their city, they 
came rushing out from their gates to attack them. 
The Romans were driven back, and they would have 
been defeated if it had not been for Marcius. So 
.fiercely did he return the attack of the enemy that 
they were forced to give way before him, and he 
encouraged his companions to pursue the flying sol- 
diers to their gates. Even there he was not willing to 
stop, but, still urging his men onward, he rushed into 
Corioli after the defeated enemy, and kept them at 
bay, and the gates open, until the rest of the army 
could come up and take the city. 



54 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HHLS. 

Then, as though he had done nothing to give him 
need of rest, he led a part of his men to help the con- 
sul in the fight against the Volscians. They arrived 
just as the battle was beginning, and fought bravely 
with the others until the victory was won. After the 
battle was over, Marcius was offered much rich booty 
as a reward, but this he would not take. He accepted 
only the horse of the consul, which was pressed upon 
him as a gift, and asked but one favor. 

'T have one request to make,'' he said, ''and this I 
hope you will not deny me. There is a friend of mine 
among the Volscian prisoners, a man of virtue, who 
has often entertained me at his house. He has lost 
his wealth and his freedom, and is now to be sold as 
a common slave. Let me beg that this may not be 
done, and that 1 may be allowed to save him from this 
last misfortune." 

The consul granted this request, and Marcius 
returned to Rome with no other reward than this for 
his brave deed. But, in honor of what he had done, 
the people gave him a third name, which was formed 
from that of the city which he had taken; and, after 
this, he was called Caius Marcius Coriolanus. His 
mother, who was as proud as Coriolanus himself, must 
have been better pleased with this title for her son 
than if he had brought home a great treasure to enrich 
the family. 

If Coriolanus could have been always with the army, 
doing such brave deeds, the rest of his story might 
have been very different. But, as he was a Roman 
patrician, he was not only a soldier, but one of the 
rulers of the city as well. The proud, fierce temper, 



THE STOR V OF CORIOLANUS. 55 

which Marcius had shown even in his boyhood began 
to exhibit itself more and more plainly as he grew to 
be an older man and took more part in the affairs of 
the city. 

He thought that only the patricians should have part 
in the government of Rome, and he hated the tribunes, 
who could check the patrician consuls by their veto. 
This made the plebeians fear him, and, though the 
nobles admired him for his courage, and wished to 
make him consul, the people refused to elect him. 
Marcius was bitterly angry over this defeat, and was 
never willing to forget that he had been so slighted 
after his services to the city. 

Then a time came when the dislike which Corio- 
lanus had for the plebeians made him do an unwise 
thing, which proved to be his ruin. On account of 
the many wars which had laid waste the fields, there 
was not enough grain raised on the lands of Rome to 
feed her people; and the consuls sent even as far as 
Sicily for corn to keep the city from famine until the 
next harvest time. But when this grain came to 
Rome, it seemed to bring more trouble than comfort 
to the starving citizens; for Coriolanus proposed to the 
Senate that they should not allow the poor people to 
receive it until they had promised to give up their 
tribunes, and be governed entirely by the patricians 
as before. Some of the senators were wise enough to 
see that this would never do, and when the people 
arose, and threatened the Senate, it gave way in spite 
of Coriolanus, and allowed the corn to be sold at a low 
price. 

But the people were not satisfied with receiving 



56 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

their grain. They now so feared and hated Corio- 
lanus, for having tried to starve them into giving up 
their rights, that they would no longer have him in 
their city. He was brought to trial by the tribunes, 
and the people sentenced him to banishment for life. 

Coriolanus went away with his heart full of bitter- 
ness. He could not see that he had been wrong, and 
he felt only hatred now for the Roman people, who, as 
it seemed to him, had abused and mistreated him. 
He went, therefore, -to the country of the Volscians, 
against whom he had fought so many battles for the 
Romans. At the fall of night, he came to the house 
of one of their chiefs. There he entered and seated 
himself as a suppliant at the hearth, with his mantle 
covering his face. He had such an air of pride and 
sorrow that the members of the family did not dare to 
question him, but sent for Tullus, the master of the 
house. When Tullus went to him, asking him who 
he was and for what purpose he had come, Coriolanus 
arose and threw the covering from his head. 

'*Do you not remember me?" he said, looking him 
proudly in the face. 'T am that Caius Marcius who 
has brought so much trouble upon the Volscians. If 
I were to deny this my name of Coriolanus would still 
declare me your enemy. That name is the one thing 
which I received in reward for my perils and hard- 
ships in battles, and it is the one thing that the Romans 
have left me, as they send me forth an exile. Now I 
come, an humble suppliant at your hearth, not for pro- 
tection, but for revenge. Let me lead your people 
against the Romans, and you will have the advantage 
of a general who knows all the secrets of your enemies. 



777^" STOR V OF CORIOLANUS. 57 

If I may not do this, let me perish as your foe, for I 
no longer wish to live." 

Tullus was rejoiced to give him what he asked, and 
soon Coriolanus marched against Rome with aVolscian 
army at his back. When he came near the city, the 
Romans were terror-stricken, for they felt too weak 
to contend with their old enemies, when led by their 
own general. The senators and the people, therefore, 
agreed to send messengers to Coriolanus, offering to 
restore him to his place at Rome, and begging him not 
to bring the terror and distress of war upon his city. 
These messengers were chosen from among his friends 
and relatives in order that they might have more influ- 
ence with him. But he treated them harshly, as if he 
had altogether forgotten his former love for them, and 
would hear no word of peace. Then the Romans sent 
all the priests, clothed in their sacred robes, to plead 
with him; but they also were turned away. 

At this the city was given over to despair, for the 
people felt that there was no cruelty of the harshest 
enemy that could be compared with the fierce wrath 
of the exiled Coriolanus. The old men knelt weeping 
at the altars of the gods, and the women ran wailing 
through the streets of the city. But when all other 
help had failed them, Veturia, the proud mother of 
Coriolanus, roused herself from her sorrow. She 
gathered around her the noblest of the Roman women, 
placing her son's wife and his children by her side, 
and set out with them for the camp of the Volscians. 

Coriolanus saw the women coming as suppliants 
through his camp, but he watched them unmoved, 
until he recognized his mother at their head. Then 



58 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

his proud soul was shaken, and he ran to her with his 
arms outstretched, as though he were the young Caius 
once more. But his mother drew back and addressed 
him sternly. 

"Do I behold you, my son," she said, ''in arms 
against the walls of Rome? Tell me, before I receive 
your embrace, whether I am in your camp as a captive 
or as your mother. Does length of life give me only 
this, to behold my son an exile and an enemy? If I 
had not been a mother, Rome would not have been 
besieged! If I had not had a son, I might die free, 
in a free country! But be sure of this, my son, that 
you shall not be able to reach your country to harm it, 
unless you first cross the body of your mother." 

As she spoke these words, she threw herself upon 
the ground at the feet of Coriolanus, a suppliant before 
her own son. But Marcius, weeping, raised her from 
the earth. 

"O Mother! what is this that you have done to me! 
You have saved Rome, but destroyed your son. I go, 
conquered by you alone." 

Then he led his arrny away; and it is said that 
he met his death at the hands of the disappointed 
Volscians. Veturia, meanwhile, returned in loneliness 
to Rome, mourning for her beloved son; though like 
the Consul Brutus she held her child less dear than 
the freedom of her country. 



THE FAMILY OF THE FA BIT 59 



IX 
The Family of the Fabii.* 

THE family of the Fabii, and, indeed, all the 
families of Rome, were very different from our 
own American families, or any others that you may 
know about. You think of your family as being made 
up of your father and mother, brothers and sisters, 
and, it may be, a grandfather or a grandmother who 
lives with you. You have other relatives, of course, 
— uncles, aunts, and cousins; but perhaps these live 
far away in some other part of the country, and you 
may know very little about them. Even if you have a 
family of relatives living in the same town with you, 
you do not think of them as belonging to your own 
family, as your brothers and sisters do. 

This was all quite different in the city of Rome. 
There the families were held closer together than with 
us, and cousins that were so distantly related that we 
should scarcely think them cousins at all, were all 
counted in the great family to which their fathers and 
grandfathers and great-grandfathers had belonged for 
centuries before them. This made the families very 
large, — as large, perhaps, as your own would be if you 



*Many Latin words ended in the letters *'us" in the singular 
number. To make the plural of such words, the "us" was changed 
to "i. " In this way, the name "Fabius," in the singular number, 
becomes "Fabii" when we wish to speak of more than one person. 



60 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

could go back through your grandfathers to the first 
one who came to America, and then should gather 
together all the persons in the country to-day who are 
related to him, however distantly. 

If you will only think for a moment of how many 
this might be, you will not be surprised to find that 
the family of the Fabii, counting men, women, and 
children, is supposed to have contained many hun- 
dreds of persons. Of course, all these people did not 
live in the same house, as we think of families doing 
to-day, for that would have been impossible. But 
they all bore the name of Fabius, and they all obeyed 
the head of their family more readily than sons now- 
adays obey their own fathers. 

The Fabii belonged to the patrician class, and were 
richer and more powerful than any other family in 
Rome; so, year after year, some one of them was sure 
to be elected consul. At last, the common people 
grew weary of this, especially as the Fabii always 
opposed the tribunes in everything that they wished 
to do for the good of the people. The plebeians grew 
to dislike the family so much that they were willing 
to do anything to distress and annoy them. 

While the people were in this humor, Kasso Fabius, 
who was then one of the consuls, led the Roman army 
against the enemy. He left the city with his horse- 
men and foot soldiers, and drew up his men before 
the enemy's camp. He was a good general, and 
everything was well arranged for the battle, when he 
gave the signal for the attack; but, at his command, 
the cavalry alone, who were all patricians, obeyed 
and went against the foe. The plebeians, who were 



THE FAMILY OF THE FABIL 61 

the foot soldiers, hated their consul so much that 
they stood still and refused to go forward and take 
their part in the battle. They did this because they 
wished to see their consul go back to Rome disgraced 
by defeat, and in fact he did return without glory, 
bearing only the increased ill-will of his soldiers. 
Then, though the Fabii were proud and haughty men, 
they saw that they had gone too far in their harshness 
toward the common people. 

When some of Rome's neighbors heard of the trou- 
ble among the people, they agreed that this would be 
a good time to lead their forces against the city while 
it was thus weakened by dissensions. So, during the 
next year, another force, from several places, came 
marching together against Rome. The Senate was 
greatly distressed at this, for one of the consuls 
was again a Fabius, and they had no way of making- 
sure that the soldiers would not behave as they 
had done the year before. Indeed, they left home 
with a sullen look, as though they were deter- 
mined to show their anger again, even at the risk of 
bringing ruin upon the city. For this reason, the 
consuls were afraid to trust their men in battle; so 
when they came near the enemy, they pitched their 
camp, and fortified it, and kept their soldiers quietly 
within it. 

Day by day, and week by week, the army lay within 
its campo The enemies of the Romans now began to 
think that there was trouble again between the patri- 
cians and the people, and that the soldiers had once 
more refused to fight. They were delighted at this, 
and felt as though the victory was already won. 



62 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

Often they would come close to the Roman camp and 
scoff at the soldiers who lay within. 

''You pretend to disagree, so that you may not 
show how afraid of us you are," they would call, 
mockingly. ''Your consuls fear to lead you to battle, 
for they distrust your courage even more than your 
obedience." 

The Romans could not endure these insults long. 
Soon, the men who had come out determined not to 
fight, were begging their consuls to lead them against 
the enemy. But Fabius did not think that they had 
been sufficiently disciplined, and he only replied: 

"The time has not yet come/' 

So the soldiers were still forced to remain closely 
in their camp, and hear the taunting cries of the 
enemy, who called, "Cowards, cowards," and, at last, 
threatened to attack the camp itself. Then, when the 
Romans were all afire with anger and impatience, and 
Fabius saw that they could no longer be kept from 
attacking the enemy who insulted them, he drew the 
army up and spoke to them. 

"Soldiers, I know that you are able to conquer these 
men who mock you; but what makes me hesitate to 
give battle is the doubt whether you will do it, or will 
stand still in the face of the enemy, as you did last 
year. I have, therefore, determined not to give the 
signal for battle until you will swear by the gods that 
you will return victorious. Our soldiers have once 
deceived the Roman consuls; the gods they will never 
deceive." 

Then one of the foremost soldiers raised his hand 
and cried: 



THE FA MIL V OF THE FA BIT 63 

'*Fabius, I will return victorious from the field or 
die upon it. If I deceive you, may the anger of 
Jupiter, Mars, and all the gods be upon me." 

Following his example, the whole army took the 
same oaths. They were then led forth to battle, and, 
after a hard fight, during which the soldiers were faith- 
ful to the last, they defeated the enemy. 

After this, the Fabian family tried rather to favor 
the poorer people than to be harsh and stern in their 
treatment of them. Kseso Fabius ordered all the sol- 
diers who were wounded in this battle to be cared for 
in the houses of the rich; and in the homes of the 
Fabii, these men were treated more kindly than any- 
where else. Little by little, the people forgot their 
hatred and began to look upon the great family 
as their friends. For their part, the Fabii soon 
proved that, however proud they might be, they 
were willing to sacrifice everything for the safety of 
their city. 

There came a time when all the enemies of Rome 
seemed to be taking up arms against her at once, and 
the people were overburdened with the preparations 
for meeting so many foes, in so many different direc- 
tions. As the Senate was anxiously discussing the 
means of providing against the danger, Kaeso Fabius 
arose, and spoke for all the Fabian family. 

''Fathers, do you attend to the other wars. Appoint 
the Fabii as the enemies of the Veientians. We pledge 
ourselves that the honor of the Roman name shall be 
safe in that quarter. And, as we ask this war for our 
family, it is our plan to conduct it at our own expense; 
for the city, which is so burdened with other dangers, 



64 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

should be spared the expense of soldiers and of sup- 
plies in this direction." 

The Senate accepted this offer with joy and thank- 
fulness, and the next day the Fabii left the town. 
There were three hundred and six men, all patricians 
and. all Fabii, in this little army. The people, quite 
forgetting their former dislike of the family, followed 
them through the streets of the city; and, at the altar 
of each god, they begged that the brave men might 
go forth to victory, and return safely to their homes 
once more. 

These prayers, however, were all in vain. No one 
of that little company ever came back to Rome. They 
went out and built a fort facing the lands of their 
enemies, and kept them in check for many months. 
But at last they were surprised and overcome by them, 
and the whole army of the Fabii was put to death. 
Only one boy who had been too young to go with 
his relatives, remained of that great family of brave 
men. But this boy became, in time, the head of 
another Fabian family, which was to win as much 
honor at Rome as the one that had been destroyed. 



THE VICTOR Y OF CINCINNA TUS. 65 



X 

The Victory of Cincinnatus. 

ON the slopes of the mountains east of Rome, there 
lived a sturdy people called the ^quians. The 
Romans had to contend with this nation for many 
years after the expulsion of their kings. As soon as 
one war with them was ended, another was sure to 
begin; and it was during one of these many struggles 
that a Roman called Cincinnatus made his name 
famous among the heroes of the early city. 

It happened once that a band of these ^quians 
marched into the Roman lands, and began to burn and 
plunder on every side. A treaty of peace had been 
made between the Romans and the ^quians only the 
year before; so the Senate sent some citizens to the 
intruders, to complain of their conduct. When these 
messengers reached the camp of the ^quians, they 
found the chiefs of the band sitting in the shade of a 
great oak tree. 

"Why do you come into our lands," they asked, 
''making war in time of peace, and breaking the treaty 
which you have made with us? The Roman Senate 
demands that you make a return for what you have 
destroyed, and leave the country in peace.'* 

The leader of the ^^quians would hear no more than 
this 

**The Roman Senate!" he exclaimed in scorn. 



66 



THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 



"Deliver to this oak tree whatever instructions you 
have brought from the Roman Senate, and in the 
meantime, I will attend to other matters!" And he 
turned to leave them. 

Then the Roman messengers also prepared to 
depart, for they saw that nothing could be done in the 
way of a peaceful settlement. But as they left one of 
them cried: 

"Let both this sacred oak and all the gods be wit- 




ROMAN PLOUGH. 



nesses that the treaty is broken by you. So may they 
help our arms presently, when we shall seek to avenge 
ourselves!" 

They went away, and soon a Roman consul led 
an army against the ^Equians. This consul was not a 
brave and ready man, as most of the Romans were, and 
the iEquians soon discovered that he was afraid to 
come to battle with them. Then they laid siege to his 
camp and by throwing up earthworks around it, they 
had his army as safe as if in a trap. Five of the 
Romans, however, succeeded in passing through the 



THE VICTOR Y OF CINCINNA TUS. 67 

lines of the enemy, and hurried to the city with the 
news that the army was surrounded. 

When the Romans heard this the Senate was hur- 
riedly called together, and decided that a Dictator 
must be appointed. Lucius Quintius, who was called 
''Cincinnatus/* on account of his crisp, curly hair, was 
the one whom they chose to meet their present diffi- 
culty. 

Cincinnatus, though he was a good soldier and a 
patrician, was a poor man, and tilled his own little 
farm of four acres on the other side of the River Tiber. 
When the messengers of the Senate came, early in the 
morning, to announce to him that he had been 
appointed Dictator, they found him ploughing in the 
fields without his ''toga," or outer gown. Before tell- 
ing him their business, they bade him leave his work, 
and put on his toga, that he might listen with due 
respect to the commands of the Senate. 

At this, Cincinnatus was astonished, and asked fre- 
quently whether anything was the matter, while his 
wife brought his toga from the cottage. Then wash- 
ing himself free from the dust and sweat of his work, 
he wrapped himself in his gown, as though he were in 
the Senate house, and listened to the messengers. 

They saluted him as Dictator, and, explaining the 
trouble in the city, they bade him come to Rome and 
take the command. Cincinnatus obeyed, and went 
with them to the town, where he was met at the gates 
by his sons; then, with twenty-four lictors marching 
on before him, he was escorted to his house in the city. 

When the next day dawned, Cincinnatus went into 
the assembly of the people and declared that business 



68 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

must be stopped, — that everyone must now attend only 
to the affairs of the State. Then he commanded that 
all who were of the age to act as soldiers should come 
together in the Field of Mars before sunset, each bring- 
ing twelve large wooden stakes besides his arms and 
food for five days. Those who were too old to act as 
soldiers he ordered to prepare the food for the other 
men, while these were busy cutting the stakes. 

When the appointed time came, the men set out, 
with Cincinnatus marching before them, and bidding 
them hasten. 

"The consul and his army have now been besieged 
three days," he said. *Tt is uncertain what each day 
and night may bring with it. You must hasten, that 
we may reach the camp this very night, for often the 
gain of a moment will change defeat into victory.'' 

And the men, to please their leader and encourage 
themselves, called to one another: 

"Follow, soldiers! Hasten on!" 

At midnight they reached the camp, where the 
^quians were laying siege to the Romans. Cincin- 
natus first rode all around the place in order to dis- 
cover, as well as he could in the darkness, how it was 
arranged. Then he drew his men silently in a long 
column around the camp, directing that at a signal, 
they should raise a shout, and begin digging a trench 
and driving their stakes before it for defense. 

When all was ready, the signal was given; and their 
cries rose though the silent night, terrifying the 
^quians, and carrying joy to the hearts of the impris- 
oned consul and his army. These sprang to their feet, 
exclaiming: 



THE VICTORY OF CINCINNATUS. 69 

''That is the shout of our countrymen! Help is at 
hand! Let us also attack the enemy!" 

Then they seized their arms, and rushed upon 
the ^quians just as they were turning to attack the 
soldiers of Cincinnatus. It was scarcely daylight 
before the Romans had conquered; for the yEquians 
were attacked from both sides at once, and were fight- 
ing unknown numbers in the darkness of the night. 

After the battle was over, the enemies of the 
Romans were not destroyed, for Cincinnatus said: 

'T want not the blood of the ^Equians. Let them 
depart in peace. But, before they go, we must have a 
confession that their nation is defeated and subdued. 
They must all pass under the yoke.'' 

Then he ordered two spears to be driven into the 
earth, and a third one fastened across their tops. 
Under this the yEquians were obliged to pass, without 
their arms, and with but one garment on their backs, 
to show to all the world that they were now as peace- 
ful and subdued as the patient oxen that ploughed the 
Roman fields with the yoke upon their necks. 

Cincinnatus then prepared to return to Rome at 
once. He gave all the booty of the ^quian camp 
to his own soldiers, and punished the consul for 
his cowardice by giving him and his soldiers nothing. 
When they reached the city, they found it full of joy 
at the rescue of its army. The Senate voted that Cin- 
cinnatus should enter Rome in triumph. So he marched 
into the city by the ''Gate of Triumph," with the 
chiefs of the yEquians led before him, and the stand- 
ards of the army carried around his car. The soldiers 
followed after, loaded down with their booty. Tables 



70 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

covered with provisions are said to have been laid out 
before the houses of all, and the soldiers were fed in 
abundance, as they followed the car of their general 
with shouts and rejoicing. 

Cincinnatus, however, was not over-exalted by his 
great victory and by the honor that was shown him 
afterwards. On the sixteenth day after he had re- 
ceived the command, he laid down his power, and 
returned to his little farm and his ploughing. For this 
simple act he has been as much admired as for his 
great success as a general. 

At the close of the Revolutionary War, Washington 
and his companions did the same thing that Cincin- 
natus was praised for doing so many centuries before 
them. They gave up their places as generals and 
officers in the army, and went peacefully back to their 
farms and shops again. They thought of Cincinnatus 
at the time, and joined together to form a society 
which they called "the Cincinnati," after this old 
Roman. This society, in its turn, gave its name to a 
city which bears it yet, the city of Cincinnati, in the 
state of Ohio. From this you can see how long a 
man's name may last in the world, if he is only strong 
and noble enough to do something which people will 
be glad to remember always. 



THE LA WS OF THE TWEL VE TABLES, 71 



XI 

The Laws of the Twelve Tables. 

AS you read these tales of the early heroes you may 
think, perhaps, that the teaching of King Numa 
was wasted; that the Romans after him did nothing 
but fight, and studied nothing but the art of winning 
battles. Most of the oldest stories that have come 
down to us tell only of the defeat or victory of a 
Roman army, — for that seemed the one important 
thing to the men who wrote the records. This, how- 
ever, did not make up all the life of the Roman people. 
They were something else besides soldiers: they were 
citizens of Rome, and members of family groups; and 
much might have been told us about their life in the 
city of which we shall always be ignorant. 

The wisest men among the Romans at this time 
knew very little about the world, even as it was then; 
and, if they had considered it deeply, they could never 
have imagined what people who might be living more 
than two thousand years after they were dead would 
like best to know about them. They only thought, as 
they wrote their records, that by the favor of the 
gods their city should last forever, and that, in later 
years, their own people might have forgotten when 
some town was taken, or how some army had been 
destroyed. So they wrote down these facts, and made 
them as lasting as they could; and they did not know 



72 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

that, after twenty centuries, people would rather learn 
more of how they bought and sold in their market 
places, and prayed in their temples, and behaved to 
one another in their homes, than so much about their 
little armies, and the towns that they destroyed. 

The account of the Twelve Tables of the Law, how- 
ever, does not concern itself with battles. In it you 
will hear of no consul leading his soldiers out of the 
city to meet the enemy, and of no Dictator returning 
in triumph, having gained a victory for his country. 
It is not a tale of war, but of the beginning of written 
law among the Romans, and it is a much nobler story 
than that of any of their sieges. 

When we Americans speak of the "law," we think of 
the statutes which are printed in many books, and 
which are used by our judges and lawyers in trying 
cases in our courts. The Romans, at first, did not 
know anything of this kind of law. Such rules as they 
had were all unwritten, and were only known to the 
patricians who had handed them down by word of 
mouth from father to son, for many hundreds of 
years. The common people did not know them, and 
they had no way of finding out what was right for 
them to do, except by asking some one who had 
been taught the law from his early youth. 

This might not have been so hard for the common 
people if all the patricians had learned the same law, 
and used their knowledge justly. But there were many 
different rules about the same thing, and the men who 
wished to be unfair could choose the law that would be 
most to their advantage, and of the least help to the 
people who appealed to them. By this crooked deal- 



THE LA WS OF THE TWEL VE TABLES. 73 

ing, the people were often misled and treated very 
unjustly by the patricians; but as they did not know 
the law, and had no way of learning it, they could do 
nothing to help themselves. 

It was one of the tribunes of the people who at last 
tried to aid them by giving them the knowledge that 
was lacking to them. He proposed that all the laws 
of Rome should be gathered together and published, 
so that the people could understand what they must 
and must not do, and so avoid making mistakes 
because of ignorance. The patricians of Rome were 
opposed to this, for they did not wish to share Iheir 
knowledge of the law with the plebeians. They felt that 
this would be yielding even more of their rights over 
the people than had been surrendered when they were 
brought back from the Sacred Mount and given their 
tribunes to protect them. 

For this reason, the Senate refused to consent to the 
publishing of the law. But the people had now 
learned to be as firm in what they demanded as the 
Senate. Y^ar after year, they elected only those 
men for tribunes who promised to help them in this 
struggle; and year after year, the tribunes continued to 
demand patiently and firmly the publication of the 
laws. It was ten years, however, before the Senate 
finally gave up the struggle and allowed the people to 
have their own way. Then they all agreed upon a 
curious thing. They changed their wh'ole government 
for the time during which the laws were to be written; 
and instead of electing consuls and tribunes, as usual, 
they chose ten men who were both to govern the city 
and prepare the laws for the people. 



74 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

After working together for some time over their task, 
these men called the people together and said to them: 

''We have written the laws as justly toward the high- 
est and the lowest as it can be done by the considera- 
tion of ten men. The understanding and advice of a 
greater number might prove more successful. We bid 
you, therefore, go and read the laws that are placed 
before you. Consider them in your own minds in each 
particular, and talk together concerning them, in order 
that you may discover everything in which they are at 
fault. For we wish you to seem not to have accepted 
the laws proposed for you, but to have proposed them 
for yourselves.'' 

The people hastened to do as they were bidden. 
When the laws had been considered by all and the 
faults seemed to have been corrected, they were 
approved by the assembly of the people, and published 
so that all men might see them. But perhaps you will 
wonder how they could be published in an age without 
printing presses and books, such as we have now. The 
Romans used a simple plan for this, but one that 
answered very well. They carved their laws upon 
twelve tablets of bronze, and then hung them in their 
market-place, or Forum, as they called it, on the sides 
of the stand from which the Romans made their 
speeches to the assembly of the people. 

Here, in this public place, every man who could read 
was free to come and study them. As the Forum was 
the busiest place in Rome, where each citizen came at 
some time during almost every day of his life in the 
city, you will see that, after this, they lived with their 
laws constantly before their eyes. The boys, too, were 



THE LA WS OF THE TWEL VE TABLES. 75 

obliged to learn the Twelve Tables by heart, as part 
of their education, and we may easily believe that it 
was not hard for a bright boy, who would be glad for 
an excuse to linger in the bustling Forum, to learn the 
whole contents of the tables long before he could take 
part in his first battle. Certainly, there was no excuse 
now for the Romans of any class not to know what was 
lawful and unlawful; and in this way a nobler thing 
had been done than if they had conquered many cities, 
and sold their inhabitants into slavery. 

These bronze tablets of the law have not come down 
to us through the centuries, as some of the Roman 
buildings have done. They were broken and destroyed 
long ago; but most of their contents have been pre- 
served for us in the writings of the later Romans. 
Some of these laws seem remarkable to us now, who 
are living with such different manners and customs; 
and this, perhaps, is most true of the laws that con- 
cern the family. 

The father of the Roman family was like a ruler in a 
little kingdom all his own, in which no one, not even 
the consul, could interfere. He could do exactly as 
he pleased with his wife and his children and his serv- 
ants. His children never became independent of their 
father, as you will be of yours when you become of 
age. The Roman father kept his power over his sons 
and daughters until the day of his death, and the laws 
even allowed him to sell his children as slaves, or to 
hire them out to work for his profit, whether they 
wished to do so or not. 

But besides the laws which seem to us so strange, 
there were many which appear more reasonable. 



76 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

Among these was one which declared that if a tree 
overhung the ground of a neighbor, he might take the 
fruit that dropped on his side of the line. If any one 
cut down the trees which belonged to another, he must 
pay twenty-five pounds of copper for each tree; and a 
man who turned cattle into a neighbor's growing crop, 
or reaped his grain by night, was to be severely pun- 
ished. 

As time went on, some of the laws of the twelve tables 
were changed and a great many others were added to 
them. Then it became impossible for any one to 
learn all of them by heart, and at last the boys ceased 
to learn even the laws of the twelve tables. But the 
main principles of the Roman laws remained the same 
under every change; they were only made clearer, and 
juster, and better fitted to the changes in the world to 
which they were to be applied. So they survived 
when almost everything else of the Roman rule had 
passed away, and they are still the foundation of the 
law in Italy, France, Spain, and even in our own state 
of Louisiana. 



HOW CAMILLUS CAPTURED VEIL 77 



XII 

How Camillus Captured Veii. 

ABOUT twenty miles north of Rome was a large 
and powerful city called Veii, with which the 
Romans were often at war. It was in a struggle with 
this town that the Fabii had been destroyed; and after 
that, war had followed war, until the fourteenth conflict 
was under way. During this the Romans had laid 
siege to the town for eight long years, and it seemed 
as though they would never be able to conquer it. 
The Senate and the people had all become discouraged, 
when a strange thing happened to make them still more 
anxious and disturbed. 

About as far south of Rome as Veii was north of it, 
lay the Alban Lake, which was completely surrounded 
by hills, and had no inlet or outlet for its waters. 
News now came to Rome that the water of this lake 
had suddenly begun to rise higher and higher, without 
heavy rains, or any other cause that could be dis- 
covered. The Romans, therefore, imagined that this 
was a miracle which was performed by the gods; and to 
find out the meaning of it, they sent messengers to the 
Oracle of the god Apollo, at Delphi. But before 
these messengers had returned, they received an expla- 
nation of the matter from the Veientians themselves. 

As often happens in long sieges, the soldiers of the 
two armies had formed the habit of calling back and 



78 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

forth at one anotherc One day, as they were doing 
this, an old man stood upon the walls of Veii and 
declared, like one uttering a prophecy, that *'until the 
waters should be discharged from the Alban Lake, the 
Romans should never become the masters of Veii/' 

One of the Roman soldiers caught at this saying 
eagerly, thinking that perhaps it showed a way for 
them to become at last victorious. He persuaded the 
old man to come out from the walls, and talk with him 
in the open ground before the Roman camp; then, 
when they were alone, he seized him boldly about the 
waist, and carried him by main force into the camp. 
From there he was taken to the Senate at Rome, and 
commanded to repeat the prophecy which he had 
spoken upon the walls of his city. He replied: 

''The gods were angry with the Veientian people that 
day, when they bade me show the way to ruin my 
country from the walls of Veii. But, since it seemed 
to them well for me to speak it, it is better said than 
unsaid. It is written in the books of the fates that 
whenever the Alban water shall rise to a great height, 
and the Romans shall discharge it in the proper man- 
ner, victory will be granted to them. Until that is 
done, the gods will not desert the walls of Veii." 

When the Romans found that the answer of the 
Oracle of Apollo agreed with the statement of the old 
man, they set eagerly to work to do what was required 
of them. While some remained with the army to 
watch about the walls of Veii, others worked at the 
Alban Lake. To make a passage for the imprisoned 
waters through the rock of the hills, they cut a great 
tunnel, the remains of which can still be traced. 



HO W CA MILL US CA P TURED VEIL 79 

Ditches were then dug through the country and the 
water of the lake was let out upon the fields. 

After all this was done, a Roman named Camillus 
was appointed Dictator, to complete the capture of 
the city When he reached the place he withdrew the 
Romans into their camp, and kept them closely there, 
in order that there might be no chance for speech with 
the enemy. Then he began a tunnel which was to lead 
from the camp, under the walls of the city, and into 
the very heart of the town. Day and night his sol- 
diers worked at this, each in his turn, so that no one 
should become exhausted by the hard labor. At last 
the task was all completed, except breaking through 
the last thin crust of earth which would admit them into 
the city. 

The Veientians still laughed and shouted from their 
walls, at the silent Romans, all unconscious that the 
Alban Lake had disappeared into the earth, and that 
their enemies were ready to pour into the city from 
their tunnel. But Camillus was certain of his victory, 
and having given orders for the soldiers to take their 
arms, he went forth to beg the help and favor of the 
gods. 

"Under thy guidance, O Apollo," he prayed, "I 
proceed to destroy the city of Veii, and I vow to thee 
a tenth part of the spoil." 

Then some of his army was sent against the walls. 
As the Veientians rushed to their defense, others of 
the Romans came out of the tunnel in the city and 
attacked them from behind. The Veientians were 
taken by surprise, and the Romans within soon suc- 
ceeded in opening the gates of the town for their com- 



80 



THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 



panions. By this means they won a complete victory, 
and, after the custom of ancient warfare, made slaves 
of the people who had withstood them so bravely, and 
stripped their town of all its treasures. 
Then the Romans prepared to remove the gods also 




JUNO. 



from the captured city. A band of young men was 
chosen, and, with their bodies freshly washed in pure 
water and clad in white garments, they took their way 
in a solemn procession to the temple of the great 
Juno. She was the especial god of the Veientians, 
and they entered her house with fear and awe. When 
they stood before the image of the goddess, one of the 
company asked: 



HOW CAMILLUS CAPTURED VEIL 81 

"O Juno, art thou willing to go to Rome?" 

Then the youths believed that they saw the goddess 
bow her beautiful head in assent, and they all shouted 
with joy. They took up the statue and carried it to 
Rome; and they persuaded themselves that it seemed 
light and easy to move, as though the goddess went 
with them willingly and of her own accord. 

For several years after this, the city of Veii was left 
standing with empty houses and temples, uncared for 
either by the gods or men. Some of the old neighbors 
of the Veientians, however, tried to make a stand 
against the Romans, even though Veii itself had 
fallen. So Camillus was sent against one of their 
cities, to lay siege to it, as he had done to Veii. This 
place was also a strong town, and the people seemed 
likely to defend themselves as long and as bravely 
as the Veientians had done. But, one day, the war 
suddenly ceased, and peace was made as a result of 
the just dealing of Camillus with the people of the 
besieged city. 

Several of the noblest families of the town had 
placed their boys in the charge of a schoolmaster, 
who was expected not only to teach them, but to care 
for them during their playtime also. Before the war 
began, this man had been in the habit of taking his 
boys beyond the walls for play and exercise, and even 
when the city had been besieged he continued in 
this custom. 

One day, when they had passed through the gates as 
usual for their romp in the open field, and while the 
boys were all absorbed in their rough play, their 
teacher led them little by little up to the Roman lines. 



82 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

and to the tent of Camillus. Then, as he came before 
the Roman general, he said: 

"Camillus, these are the children of the men who 
are highest in rank in the city. With them I deliver 
to you the city itself, for their rulers will be willing to 
sacrifice everything to regain their children; and I 
know that you will reward me for my deed/' 

But Camillus would not take advantage of his 
treachery. 

''Wicked as thou art," he cried, *'thou hast not come 
with thy offering to a commander or a people like thy- 
self. We do not carry arms against defenseless chil- 
dren, but against armed men." He then'^ordered the 
man's arms to be tied behind his back; and put rods 
in the boys' hands, bidding them flog their treacherous 
master back to the city, where he would certainly b/ 
punished as he well deserved to be. 

When the people of the city received their children 
again from Camillus, their feeling toward the Romans 
changed. Before this time, they had preferred^ the 
fate of the Veientians to making peace with the 
Romans, but now the virtue of Camillus filled them 
with admiration. They sent messengers to the Roman 
Senate, therefore, and surrendered themselves without 
further struggle, saying: 

"Fathers, we are overcome by your good faith, and 
we give the victory to you of our own free will. We 
believe that we shall live more happily under your rule 
than we do now under our own laws; so send men to 
receive our arms, and our city." 

By two such victories as these, and many smaller 
ones, Camillus became one of the greatest of the 



HOW CA MILL US CA P TURED VEIL 83 

Romans. The people were grateful to him for his 
services to the city, and they were certain that no one 
could lead the Roman armies so well as he. But 
Camillus, like Coriolanus, was a proud man, and 
wished to rule the city as he did his army. Among 
other things, he was determined that the tenth part of 
the spoil of Veii should be given to Apollo, as he had 
promised before the battle, and this the people did not 
wish to do. He forced it from them at last; and then 
they asked him, in return, what right he had to the 
great bronze doors which he had brought from the 
conquered city, and placed before his own house. 

So Camillus and the people fell to quarreling, and, 
after a time, the general was forced to leave Rome. 
In rage and sorrow, he went to find a home in 
another place; but he would have preferred to have 
''lost his life in his city s battles, for to be obliged 
to lead the life of a exile was worse than death to a 
Roman. 



84 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 



XIII 

The Coming of the Gauls. 

IN all the wars which the Romans had fought up to 
this time, they had been contending with people 
who were near neighbors to them, and who were like 
themselves in their ways of life and methods of fight- 
ing. But six years after the capture of Veii, they were 
called upon to meet a new race in battle, whose like 
they had never seen before, and at whose hands they 
met a terrible defeat. 

North of the peninsula of Italy, you will remember, 
and shutting it off from the rest of Europe, lies the 
great snowy chain of the Alps. These mountains are 
higher and more difficult to cross than any of the 
mountains of our own country; but there are now many 
well-made wagon roads through them and even some 
railroads. In the early days of Rome, however, there 
were merely paths and the great snow-covered ridges 
made a barrier which men rarely thought of cross- 
ing. The Romans knew nothing of the people who 
lived on the other side of the Alps, and perhaps would 
never have thought, for many centuries longer, of 
climbing through their rough passes to find out what 
lay beyond them. 

But the peoples who lived north of these mountains 
were very different from the Italians, and were not 
held in one place by the love of their lands and homes. 



THE COMING OF THE GA ULS. 



85 



They had villages and towns of their own; but these 
were poor and ill-made, compared to the Italian cities, 
and the people were always ready to leave them to 
follow their chiefs into other countries to gain new 
possessions. The Alps, too, 
are easier to climb from the 
north than from the south, 
for the slope on the north- 
ern side is much more grad- 
ual. So some of these tribes 
found their way over into 
Italy while the Romans were 
still absorbed by the affairs 
of their own city and its little 
neighborhood wars. 

These nations from the 
north had many names 
among themselves, but the 
Italians usually called them 
all by the name of Gauls. 
They were very different in 
appearance from any people 
that the Italians had ever 
seen. The Romans and the 
other Italians were small 
compared with the Gauls, 
and had black hair and eyes, 
and dark skins browned by 
the suns of the long Italian summers. The Gauls 
were from a more temperate climate; where the milder 
sunlight and the cooler summers had left their hair 
and skins fair and their eyes blue. This was a contin- 




GALLIC SOLDIER. 



86 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

ual wonder to the darker Italians; and, when we con- 
sider in addition the superior size of the Gauls, it is 
not surprising, to find that the Romans spoke with 
awe of these blue-eyed giants, for many years after 
they had disappeared from the neighborhood of Rome. 

The dress of the Gauls was also strange to the 
Romans, for they wore garments checked and striped 
in many colors. These remind us of the bright tartans 
in which the Highlanders of Scotland clothed them- 
selves for centuries, and of which they make some use 
even nowadays. Indeed, the Highlanders are, per- 
haps, the most closely related to these ancient Gauls 
of any people now in the world, and only a few hun- 
dred years ago, they were using war-horns and swords 
in their battles very much like the ones that the 
Romans tell us the Gauls brought with them into Italy. 

The Gauls differed as much from the Romans in 
their manner of fighting as they did in their appear- 
ance. The Romans, during their long experience in 
warfare, had learned to draw up their soldiers in a 
regular form, with the cavalry and the infantry in 
fixed positions, and they always went into battle in an 
orderly manner. The Gauls never dreamed of any- 
thing like a plan in their arrangement. Each man, 
with his broad, unpointed sword, and long shield, took 
his place in the great mass of his fellow soldiers; and, 
when the signal for battle came, they all rushed 
furiously at the enemy. Those who were behind 
pushed on those in front, if they showed signs of giv- 
ing way; and their savage yells and |^the din of their 
horns terrified the enemy as much as the blows from 
their heavy swords. 



THE COMING OF THE GA ULS. 87 

Some tribes of the Gauls had been settled in the 
northern part of Italy for a long time before the 
Romans heard anything about them. This is a good 
example of how much larger Italy was then to the 
people who lived in it. Now the citizens of Rome 
know the events in the valley of the Po almost as 
quickly as those of their own town, but the ancient 
Romans lived for years without discovering that a new 
race had already gained a foothold in their country. 
It was .only when a band of the Gauls, — leaving their 
families behind them, with their relatives who had 
settled along the Po, — pushed down farther to the 
south, and crossed the Apennines, that they came to 
the knowledge of the Romans. 

These Gauls were terrible destroyers; and, as they 
went, they left a broad path behind them, in which 
there were only ruined towns, and fields bare of any 
sign of life. City after city fell into their hands, and 
terror spread before them through the country. When 
they came to the Tuscan town of Clusium, where Lars 
Porsena had ruled a cen-tury before, messengers were 
sent to Rome to beg for help against this new enemy. 

At first, Rome only replied to this request by send- 
ing three ambassadors to treat with the Gauls. When 
these Romans and the men of Clusium met the chiefs 
of the Gauls, they demanded why they had come in 
this manner into the country of another people. 

**We want land for those of us who have none,'' 
replied the Gauls, "and the men of Clusium have more 
than they can use. Give us what we ask, and we will 
not make war upon you." 

*'Butwhat right have you to ask for land from the 



88 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

men of Clusium, and threaten war if they refuse it?" 
the Romans cried, thinking of their own lands, which 
might be asked for next. 

*'We carry our right in our swords,'* the Gauls 
replied. "All things belong to the brave. Do you 
stand by, O Romans, and see us decide this matter 
with our arms, and then carry home the story of how 
much the Gauls excel all other peoples in bravery.'' 

The people of Clusium could not endure this haughty 
speech. They refused the demand of the Gauls, and 
a battle began. The Roman ambassadors, too, were 
angry, and this caused them to forget the law of 
nations, which has never allowed ambassadors to take 
part in actual fighting. They entered the battle, side 
by side with the soldiers of Clusium, and one of the 
three killed a chieftain of the Gauls in the sight of 
both the armies. 

Then the Gauls were much enraged. With a sudden 
impulse, they ceased their attack on Clusium, and sent 
messengers to Rome demanding that the offenders 
should be given up to them for punishment. When 
this was refused, they marched straight upon the city. 

The Romans heard of their coming, and prepared 
to meet them, but not so carefully as they would have 
done if the Gauls had been the people of some neigh- 
boring city. They did not seem to think it worth 
while to appoint a Dictator, as they had so often done 
when other dangers threatened them. They did not 
realize that they would have to meet an enemy more 
difficult to face than any they had ever fought before. 
Perhaps they even despised the Gauls for their savage 
ways, and their clumsy weapons, of which they must 



THE COMING OF THE GA ULS. 89 

have heard; and thought that it would not be so dififi- 
cult to defeat men who fought with their heads 
unprotected by helmets. But, if the Romans under- 
rated the Gauls before they met them, they learned 
from them one great lesson, — that it is never safe to 
scorn an enemy, until you have tried his strength. 

When the Gauls had come as near as the eleventh 
milestone from the city, the Romans went out to 
meet them with a large army. The battle took place 
on the banks of a little stream which flows into the 
river Tiber. There the Romans drew up their men 
in a long line, as they were in the habit of doing when 
they met their Italian enemies, without considering 
whether this w^as the best way to withstand the mad 
dash of their new foes. 

With their horns blowing and their shouts rising in 
a fearful roar, the Gauls came charging in a great mass 
at the Roman army, and went through the line of 
brave soldiers with a rush that could not be resisted. 
The Romans were divided into two parts, as if a 
wedge had been driven through them; and, terrified at 
the savage attack and their sudden defeat, they fled 
blindly, as they had so often caused their own enemies 
to flee. The greater part of the Roman army was cut off 
from Rome by the force of the Gauls, and the men were 
obliged to throw themselves into the Tiber, and swim 
to the other shore, where they took refuge behind the 
walls of the deserted city of Veii. The smaller part 
retreated in a panic to Rome; and, rushing through 
the streets, made their way into the citadel without 
stopping to close the gates behind them. 

The Gauls did not pursue them. They were amazed 



90 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

at their sudden success, and they hesitated to go on, 
for fear that there might be some trap prepared for 
them. They turned back, to gather up the arms of 
the Roman dead; and then they spent their time in 
dividing the spoil and feasting. As a result of this, 
it was not until the third day after the battle — in mid- 
summer, 390 B.C. — that the army of the Gauls appeared 
before the gates of Rome. 



THE GA ULS IN ROME. 91 



XIV 
The Gauls in Rome. 

MEANWHILE, all was terror and dismay in Rome. 
Only a handful of men had returned from the 
army that had marched out on the day of the battle. 
But the Romans had not only to sorrow for the dead; 
they had also to fear for the living, as the men who 
remained in Rome were too few to defend the wide 
extent of the city walls against the attack of these 
fierce barbarians. 

So, without making any attempt to guard the wall, 
the Romans determined to take their stand on the 
Capitol. This was a rocky hill, upon which the 
citadel was built, and it was of course well fitted for 
defense. Its sides were so steep, except where the 
road ascended, that it seemed as though no enemy 
could climb them. Upon it was a well, to furnish a 
sure supply of water; and there, too, were the temples 
of the gods, to protect and encourage the citizens in 
the defense of their last stronghold. 

While the Gauls gathered their spoil and feasted, 
the Romans hastened to bring provisions to this place 
and prepare it to withstand a siege. Not all of the 
people, however, could find refuge here. No one 
was wanted on the Capitol who could not do his share 
in its defense; the women and the children, and the 
people untrained to arms, would only have taken the 



92 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

food from the mouths of those who labored to save the 
most sacred part of the town. 

So, while the Capitol was being made ready, great 
numbers of the people went out of Rome, and sought 
refuge in the hills on the other side of the Tiber, and 
in the neighboring cities. With them went the Vestal 
Virgins, carrying the sacred fire from the altar, and 
the vessels used in the worship of the gods. The 
Romans have preserved the story of how a poor ple- 
beian, who was flying with his goods and family, met 
the Vestals as they were toiling along thq road on 
foot; and how, seeing their weariness, he bade his wife 
and children get down from his cart, that he might 
take up the holy maidens and carry them to a place 
of safety. 

There were some of the Romans, however, who could 
not fight, and yet who would not leave the city. These 
were the old patricians, who were too feeble to bear 
arms and be useful in the citadel, but who could not 
bear the thought of leaving their homes and wandering 
in exile, while the city they loved was laid in ashes 
by the barbarous Gauls. They determined, therefore, 
to make a sacrifice of themselves to the gods for the 
good of their country. They were men who in their 
earlier years had been consuls, or had filled other high 
offices in the city. Now they put on their robes of 
state, and seated themselves in their ivory chairs in 
the Forum, to wait calmly for the coming of the 
enemy. 

When, at last, the Gauls entered the city, they 
passed wonderingly from street to street through the 
empty town, seeking the enemy who awaited them 



THE GA ULS IN ROME. 93 

* only in the citadel above. When they came to the 
Forum, they were struck with amazement at the sight 
of so many stately old men, sitting there in perfect 
order and silence. On their part, the nobles neither 
rose at their coming, nor so much as turned their eyes 
towards them, but gazed upon one another quietly, 
and showed no sign of fear. 

For a while, the Gauls stood wondering at the strange 
sight, and did not approach or touch the Romans, for 
they seemed more like an assembly of the gods than 
men. But, finally, a barbarian, bolder than the rest, 
drew near to one of the old men, and putting forth a 
hand, gently stroked his long, white beard. Perhaps he 
had intended no harm; but the old Roman took it for 
an insult, and, raising the long staff which he carried 
in his hand, struck the Gaul a heavy blow over the 
head. At this the anger of the Gauls flamed up, and the 
old men were put to death, as they had expected when 
they prepared themselves for a sacrifice to the gods. 
The houses of the city were then robbed of the goods 
that had been left in them, and, fire having started, 
the streets and buildings were soon a mass of smoul- 
dering ashes. 

But even then, the Gauls could not take the Capitol. 
The great rock was steep and well defended, and they 
soon found that they could not force their way to the 
top. They were obliged to settle down in the ruined 
city and besiege the Romans. This, however, was not 
the kind of fighting they were used to; they always 
found it tedious to sit still before an enemy and try to 
starve him into surrender. Indeed, in this case, there 
was some danger that they might starve themselves; 



94 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

for they soon used up all the provisions that had been 
left in the town, and then, from day to day, they had 
to send out parts of their army to gather in food from 
the surrounding country. 

vOn such a trip, one of these parties wandered as far 
as the town where Camillus was then living, in exile 
from his native city. Though he had been badly 
tr.eated by the Romans, the general was grieved at the 
misfortunes that had come upon the town. Instead of 
planning for escape when the Gauls came into his 
neighborhood, he tried rather to punish them for what 
they had done to Rome; and, taking the young men 
of the city, he fell upon their camp by night and 
destroyed them utterly. 

When the news of this act reached those Romans 
who had taken refuge in Veii, they began to recover 
from their terror, and to plan for the rescue of Rome. 
But first they must have a leader; and where, they 
asked, could they find a better one than Camillus, who 
had captured Veii for them, and had just shown them 
how to overcome the Gauls? Before Camillus could 
become their general, however, he had to be recalled 
from exile, and appointed to be their leader by the 
Senate. What was left of the Senate was besieged 
on the Capitol at Rome; so the men at Veii sent a 
youth to them, asking that they would recall Camillus 
and appoint him to command them. 

This messenger boldly traveled the greater part of 
the way to Rome by day, but he waited until night to 
draw near to the city. Then he passed the river by 
swimming, with pieces of cork under his garments to 
hold him up, and approached the Capitol. Here, at 



THE GA ULS IN ROME. 95 

a place which the Gauls had left unguarded, he man- 
aged to scramble up its rocky side, and gained the top 
in safety. He delivered his message to the Senate, 
and they granted his request gladly, and named 
Camillus, Dictator. Before morning the youth 
returned as he had come, bearing word back to 
Camillus and to the men at Veii. 

The next day some of the Gauls at Rome found the 
marks of hands and feet where the messenger had 
climbed the side of the Capitol. Then they said to 
one another: 

"Where it is easy for one man to get up, it will not 
be hard for many, one after another." 

So the next night they made the attempt. Sending 
an unarmed man ahead to try the way, they followed 
in his steps, passing their weapons from one to 
another, and drawing each other up over the steep 
places. In this way, they reached the top, and reached 
it unnoticed by the Romans, for the sentinels were fast 
asleep, and even the dogs were quiet and gave no alarm. 

But the sacred geese that were kept near the temple 
of Juno were more watchful. As the enemy approached 
their inclosure, they flapped their wings, cackling 
loudly, and this awoke an officer named Marcus Man- 
lius, who was sleeping near by. At once, Manlius 
snatched up his arms, and, shouting to awake his com- 
rades, he rushed to the spot where the first Gauls were 
just climbing over the wall of the citadel. One of 
them he slew with his sword, and another, at the same 
time, he struck full in the face with his shield, hurling 
him headlong from the rock; and this man, as he fell, 
threw down others who were below him. Then Man- 



96 



THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 



Hus's companions joined him, and spears and stones 
fell thick and fast upon the climbing enemy, until the 
last of the attacking party was dashed to ruin at the 
foot of the rock, and the citadel was saved. 

After this, the siege continued for many months, and 
it wore heavily on the Gauls and the Romans alike. 




THE CAPITOL AT ROME. 



At last both sides reached the limit of their endurance. 
It was that time of the year which was most unhealthy 
in Rome — the late summer and autumn — and many of 
the Gauls fell sick and died, for they were used to 
a colder and more healthful climate. The Romans 



THE GA ULS IN ROME, 97 

were in a still worse condition, for their food was 
giving out. Even when Marcus Manlius had saved 
the Capitol, the citizens could do no kinder thing 
for him in return than to give him each half a 
pound of corn and half a pint of wine, taking this 
from the nourishment of their own bodies that he 
might be rewarded. Now there was not even this to 
give, and they had looked long and vainly for Camil- 
lus and the promised help from Veil. They were 
wearied with constant watching; and, weakened by 
hunger, they could scarcely bear the weight of their 
arms. 

So, when the Gauls offered to break up the siege, 
and leave Rome in return for a thousand pounds of 
gold, the Romans were ready to consent. They 
brought out the gold for settlement; but, as the Gauls 
weighed it, the Romans charged them with balancing 
the scales unfairly. The only answer of the Gallic 
chief was to unbuckle his heavy sword from his waist, 
and throw it — belt, scabbard, and all — into the scale 
with the weights. The Romans indignantly demanded 
the meaning of this action. 

**What should it mean but woe to the conquered?" 
he replied calmly. 

And the Romans could do nothing but add the gold 
to make up the extra weight. They were conquered, 
indeed. 



98 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 



XV 

Rebuilding the City. 

THE stories go on to tell us that, before the Gauls 
got well away from Rome, Camillas arrived at 
last and defeated them, and took back the gold which 
had been given them as a ransom. It is likely, how- 
ever, that this is only what the Romans wished could 
have happened, and not what really took place. 

But, whether the Roman gold went with the Gauls 
or not, a very much heavier trouble had fallen upon 
the city, for the town was in ashes, and the people 
were scattered far and wide. It had taken hundreds 
of years to build Rome, and but a few months to 
destroy it. How the men and women must have 
mourned as they came back from their hiding-places 
and saw only heaps of stone and ashes where they had 
left their streets and homes! Only the Capitol lifted 
its head in the midst of the blackened ruins, bearing 
its buildings and temples unharmed. 

Those who were in the greatest despair, as they gazed 
at the ruined town, were the common people. They 
had lost all of the little which they had possessed; 
and, as they looked at the ruins around the Capitol, 
they shrank from the task that they saw before them. 
Rome must be begun anew; and what toil it meant for 
them only to clear the ground and make ready for the 
work of building! And, after that was done, the 



REBUILDING THE CITY. 99 

greatest task would yet remain, — the gathering of the 
material and the construction of the dwellings. 

Many of the people had returned from Veii, where 
they had been living in the well-built houses of that 
city, and they thought of them with regret. 

''Why should we remain here, O Romans/* cried the 
leaders of the people, "and toil at this great work? 
A home awaits us in Veii, ready built and with most 
fertile fields around it. That city was conquered by 
us from our enemies; let us make use of it now in our 
great need." 

Then the people, looking at the ruins about them, 
answered: 

"Yes, let us go! Let us begin anew in Veii!" 

But they did not go. When Camillus heard of the 
plans of the people, he went out among them, with the 
whole Senate following after him, and spoke to them 
long and earnestly. 

"What is this that you think of doing, O Romans? 
Why have we struggled to recover our city from the 
Gauls, if we ourselves desert it as soon as it is recov- 
ered? Shall we now leave the Capitol, which the 
Romans and the gods still held, while the Gauls lay 
camped in the city ? Shall even the citadel be deserted, 
now that the Gauls are fled and the Romans victorious ? 
We possess a city founded by the gods; not a spot is 
there in it that is not full of them. Will you forsake 
them all by leaving Rome? Shall the Virgins forsake 
thee, O Vesta, and the priests of Rome become Veien- 
tians? Has our native soil so slight a hold on us, or 
this earth which we call mother? Does our love of 
country lie merely in the surface, and in thc^ timber of 

LofC. 



100 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

our houses? For my part, 1 will confess to you, that, 
while I have been absent from my city, whenever it 
came into my thoughts, all these occurred to me, — 
the hills, the plains, the Tiber, the face of the country, 
so familiar to my eyes, and this sky, under which I 
have been born and educated. May these now, by 
your love of them, induce you to remain, rather than 
that they should cause you grief and regret after 
having left them. Not without good reason did gods 
and men choose this place for founding a city, — these 
most healthful hills, and this large river bearing^ the 
fruits of the inland country to us, and ours to the sea, 
— this place in the center of Italy.. The very size of 
our city before it was destroyed is a proof of its good 
situation. Where is the wisdom of your giving this 
up, now that you have proved it, to make trial of 
another city into which good fortune may not follow 
you? Here is the Capitol, which it was foretold 
should become the chief seat of empire. Here is the 
fire of Vesta. Here are the shields of Mars, let down 
from heaven. Here are all the gods, who will be 
favorable to you if you stay.*' 

In spite of the speech of Camillus, however, the peo- 
ple still hesitated, and the senators even could not 
quite decide what it would be best for them to do. 
But, as they were still discussing the matter in the 
Senate house, an officer marched through the Forum 
with his soldiers, and called out: 

* 'Standard-bearer, fix your standard. Let us halt 
here." 

His words reached the ears of the senators as they 
sat in anxious quiet, and it seemed to them like a mes- 



REBUILDING THE CITY. 



101 



sage from the gods, commanding them to remain at 
Rome. They came out of the Senate-house, therefore, 
exclaiming that "they accepted the omen"; and the 
common people, when they were told of the occur- 
rence, allowed themselves 
to be persuaded to remain. 
Then the Senate ordered 
that Veii should be de- 
stroyed, so that the people 
might never again be tempt- 
ed to leave Rome; and build- 
ing materials were brought 
from the ruins there, and used 
in restoring the city. The 
Senate also gave the people 
liberty to take wood and 
stone free of charge, and to 
begin their houses wherever 
they could find a place. So, 
within a year, the city was 
rebuilt, after a fashion; but 
the houses at first were poor 
and mean, and the work was 
done so hurriedly that no 
attention was paid even to 
the course of the streets. 
The sewers, which had been 
laid in the old roadways, were now built over by 
private houses, and the new streets, winding in and 
out among the buildings, were very narrow and 
crooked. 

The Romans were not allowt^l to rebuild their city 




STANDARD BEARER. 



102 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

in peace, however. All the nations around them^ 
began to take advantage of their weakness to prevent 
them from growing strong and powerful once more. 
As we read the old stories, we wonder whether the 
Romans would have ever succeeded in restoring their 
city if it had not been for Camillus. He led them 
against their enemies many times, and always with 
success, often gaining the victory for them more by 
the enemy's fear of him than by the size of his armies 
or the strength of their arms. 

At last, Camillus had grown to be an old man of 
eighty years, and when a call to battle came he feared 
that he was no longer fit to lead the Romans to vic- 
tory. Nevertheless the citizens would not allow him to 
retire from the command; for his mind was still clear 
and strong, and they thought that this was worth 
more than youth and strength of body. 

So Camillus went forth from Rome, with another 
man — Lucius Furius — for a companion in command; 
and he led his men cautiously to the seat of the war. 
The enemy had a larger force than Camillus, and were 
awaiting him in a city which had belonged to the 
Romans before the coming of the Gauls. When they 
saw the Romans approaching, they came out and 
offered to give battle immediately; for they thought 
that, by doing this, they would give Camillus less 
chance to plan his battle skilfully. But Camillus was 
too wise in the art of war to be caught in such a way, 
and he prepared to keep his men from battle until he 
saw a good chance for victory. 

This made the enemy all the more eager, and they 
came close to the Roman camp and began digging 



REBUILDING THE CITY. 103 

trenches and preparing for battle as though daring 
them to fight. The Roman soldiers found this hard to 
bear, even though they were so few in number com- 
pared with the enemy. In their anger, they began to 
think that Camillus was holding them back more 
because of the weakness and fears of age, than from 
carefulness for their safety and final victory. The 
other general, the young Furius, was of this opinion 
also, and did not hesitate to say what he thought 
among the soldiers. 

''Wars are the business of young men/' he said, 
"and it ought to be so, for, in the best condition of 
the body, the mind is strongest also. Why should 
Camillus now hold his men quiet in the trenches w^hen 
formerly he used to carry camps and cities at the first 
onset? What increase does he expect to his own 
strength; what falling off does he hope for in the 
enemy? Camillus has had a goodly share of years, as 
well as of glory. Shall we now allow the strength of 
the state to suffer because his body sinks into old age ?" 

When the soldiers, excited by these words, demanded 
battle, Furius appealed to the general. 

"Camillus, we cannot withstand the violence of our 
soldiers, and the enemy insults us in a way not to be 
endured. Do you, who are but one man, yield to all, 
and allow us to do as we wish, that the victory may be 
ours the sooner." 

Then the old general replied: 

"Whatever wars have been fought, up to this day, 
under my single care, have not proved either my 
judgment or my good fortune to be wanting. But 
now I have a companion in my office of general, who 



104 THE CITY OF THE SE YEN HILLS, 

is my equal in command and my superior in the vigor 
of youth. I have been accustomed to rule the vio- 
lence of my army, not to be ruled by it. But with my 
companion's power I cannot interfere. You may do, 
Lucius Furius, that which you think best for the 
interest of Rome. I beg only one thing, and that is, 
that, in consideration of my years, I may not be 
placed in the front rank. Whatever duties of war an 
old man may discharge, in these I shall not be found 
wanting. And I pray the immortal gods that no mis- 
fortune may come upon the Romans to prove that my 
plan would have been the better one." 

Then the Romans were drawn up in order of battle 
and advanced to the attack, leaving Camillus, as he 
had desired, with some reserve troops in the camp. 
The old general first posted strong guards about the 
camp, and then stood anxiously watching the advance 
of the Romans. 

As he had feared, he did not see them gain a vic- 
tory. At first, the enemy seemed to give way, and 
the Romans followed eagerly. But when the retreating 
soldiers had drawn them on to where the ground was 
difficult, they suddenly faced about; others of their 
men joined them, and they attacked the Romans 
at a disadvantage. It was not long before Camillus, 
from the high ground on which he watched the battle, 
saw the Roman line break and the soldiers come fly- 
ing toward his camp. 

Then Camillus commanded his men to lift him on 
his horse, and, calling to his troops, he led them out 
against the enemy. When he met the Romans rushing 
blindly back, he cried: 



REBUILDING THE CITY. 105 

"Soldiers! is this the battle that you called for so 
eagerly? Why turn your faces toward the camp? Not 
a man of you shall my camp receive, except as victor! 
Having followed another leader, now follow Camillus, 
and conquer as you have done before.'' 

At this the soldiers halted, stopped at first by 
shame. Then when they saw their old general, whom 
they had followed to so many conquests, go forward 
against the enemy in the front rank, they turned and 
joined him, with shouts and renewed courage. And 
once more Camillus led them on to victory. 

It would have been natural after this for Camillus 
to have been angry with Lucius Furius, but he did not 
prove to be so. He seemed to wish to forget that it 
was the bad judgment of Furius which had brought on 
the battle, and to remember only that he had fought 
with the greatest bravery through it all. 

"This day," said Camillus, "will be a lesson to him 
not to prefer his own plans to better ones." 

So, when Camillus was appointed general for a new 
war soon after this, he chose this same Lucius Furius 
as his companion in command; and they went out 
together, once more, in friendliness and good fellow- 
ship. This seems indeed a different Camillus from the 
one who had been exiled because he could not live 
without quarreling with his fellow citizens. Now 
you find him, instead of urging matters of dispute, 
forgiving a real injury, and showing only kindness 
to the man who had scorned him in his old age. 
He had learned something nobler, during his long 
life, than how to conduct a war successfully; for 
at the last, he was willing to return good for evil, 



106 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

and to make a friend of one who might have been his 
enemy. 

Camillas lived for some years longer, and when he 
died the people felt as though they had lost a second 
Romulus; for he had almost founded their city a 
second time, by persuading them to remain in it after 
the retreat of the Gauls, and by protecting them from 
their enemies while they rebuilt their dwellings. The 
wisdom of his desire to remain at Rome was seen even 
before his death, for the city had already sprung up in 
a vigorous new growth; and we now believe, as Camil- 
lus did then, that nowhere else could Rome have 
grown to be the great city which it finally became. 



THE NE W ROME. 107 



XVI 

The New Rome. 

THE labor and self-denial of these first years of the 
new city were hard for its people to endure, and 
yet they had to carry the burden alone. If Rome had 
been a modern town overcome by misfortune, its 
inhabitants would have received generous aid from all 
the country round. In our time, whether it has been 
at the Chicago fire, the Charleston earthquake, or 
the Galveston flood, money, food, and clothing have 
poured upon the sufferers from every side. The 
neighbors of ancient Rome, however, would have 
preferred to injure, rather than to aid, the people of 
the destroyed city. It was only owing to the wisdom 
and skill of Camillus, and the determination of her 
own people that Rome at length recovered from her 
disaster, and became a powerful city once more. 

In one way their troubles were a good thing for the 
Romans. The patricians found it so important, for 
their own good, that the common people should stay 
at Rome and help in the work of rebuilding the city, 
that they became willing to give up many of the rights 
which, before this, they had kept to themselves. It 
was not many years after the new Rome had been 
built that a man from the plebeians was elected con- 
sul, along with a man of noble birth. This was a 
great victory for the common people, and it was soon 



108 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

followed by others. Before a century had passed 
from the coming of the Gauls, the plebeians were 
allowed to hold any ofifice to which a patrician could 
be elected, and the old distinctions between the classes 
were entirely removed. 

In spite of the fact that Camillus had called their 
hills "most healthful/' Rome was troubled for many 
years after the rebuilding of the city with illness 
among the people. You will remember that the Gauls 
sickened quickly in Rome; and now, even the citizens 
themselves, who were used to the climate, died in great 
numbers. This indeed was the cause of the death of 
Camillus himself, after all his long years of fighting 
on Roman battlefields; and sometimes there was so 
much illness among the people that the armies could 
not be sent out against their enemies as usual. 

This trouble was due partly to a lack of good 
water in the city. The well water about Rome, and 
also the water of the Tiber, was impure; and the cis- 
terns did not furnish enough for the use of the people. 
The Romans must have felt this need very keenly, for, 
while they were fighting battles on every side, they 
set themselves to work to bring in a good supply of 
water from outside the city, as is now done in all of 
our large towns. Eight miles from Rome there were 
hills where pure water could be found in plenty, and 
they brought this into the city in a passage which 
they built for it under ground. 

Such a passage for water they called an '^aqueduct,'* 
and we still use the same word ourselves, having 
received it from the Romans. We have usually built 
our aqueducts above ground, however, while the 



THE NE W ROME. 



109 



Romans did not dare do this at first for fear their 
enemies might succeed in turning the stream aside, 
and thus leave the city without water. But as Rome 




RUINS OF A ROMAN AQUEDUCT. 



conquered the people about her, and the city grew 
larger and needed a greater supply, many new 
acjueducts were built, which were placed above the 



110 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

ground. Even yet you can see, near Rome, the 
remains of some of the great stone troughs — sometimes 
built high up in the air on arches — in which water was 
brought many miles from the pure sources in the hills. 

At this time, also, the Romans began a work which 
was as great as the building of their aqueducts, — the 
making of good roads. As soon as they had begun 
to send out armies to fight with the neighboring cities, 
they must have seen the need of well-built roads that 
could be used through all the seasons of the year, and 
in wet and dry weather alike. Such roads became 
still more necessary now that they had come to rule 
lands and cities lying many miles from home. So 
while the citizens were bringing good water into 
Rome, they began their first long road; and the man 
who led them in building their aqueduct was foremost 
in making this also. His name was Appius Claudius, 
and he was quite as great a man as any of the Roman 
generals that we are told so much about. Because 
the road was built under his direction, the Romans 
called it the ''Appian Way," and to-day what remains 
of it is still known by this name. 

From the beginning, the Romans built their roads 
with the greatest care. First, after they had removed 
the earth to the proper depth, they placed a layer of 
large flat stones on the ground. Then a layer, nine 
inches thick, of smaller stones, was laid upon these, 
and cemented together with lime. Next came a layer, 
about six inches thick, of still smaller stones, and this 
too was bound together with cement. At last, on top 
of all, blocks of very hard stone were laid, and fitted 
closely together, so as to make a perfectly smooth 



THE NE W ROME, 



111 



surface whether for walking or driving. Is it any 
wonder that roads built with such care have lasted for 
two thousand years? 

This building of roads and bringing of water into 
the city was not a small thing for the Romans to do, 
as perhaps it may seem now, when well-paved streets 
and waterworks are to be found in every large town. 
The Romans did this when such things were only 
beginning to be thought of by men, and they did it so 
well that they set an example which the whole world 




A ROMAN ROAD. 

has been glad to follow ever since. They saw what 
they needed, then they thought out the best way to 
meet their wants; and, last of all, they were willing to 
work long and hard in order to do well whatever they 
undertook. It is this as much as anything else which 
made the Romans become one of the greatest nations 
that the world has ever seen. They thought well and 
worked hard, whether it was in fighting battles or 
building roads, and in the end this made them the 
masters of the world. 



112 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

The Romans not only thought things out for them- 
selves, however; they were always ready to learn from 
others. Whatever they saw that seemed good to them, 
they borrowed and made part of themselves. They 
learned from their neighbors to the north a great deal 
of that knowledge of building which they used in con- 
structing their temples and aqueducts. When, for the 
first time, they went to war with a foe beyond the sea, 
they taught themselves how to build war-vessels from 
a ship of the enemy which was wrecked on their shores. 
When they found that the short, straight sword, which 
the people of Spain used, was better than their own, 
they armed their soldiers with that. And when they 
discovered that the Greeks were greater poets and 
artists than they were, they took them to be their 
teachers in art and literature. 

But, besides the power of the Romans to think, to 
work, and to learn from others, there was something 
else that made their city strong. This was the love 
and devotion of her people. The best of the Romans 
were willing to die for her, and did die for her, not 
only by going into battle and laying down their lives 
there, but in other ways as well. 

Old writers tell us that once a great chasm, many 
feet deep, suddenly opened in the Forum. This must 
have been caused by an earthquake, such as those 
which still often occur in Italy, and more rarely in 
our own land. The Romans were greatly distressed 
by this opening, and they tried to fill it by throwing 
earth into it. But, in spite of all their efforts, they 
could make no headway. Then they could only look 
upon it as a work of the gods, and they asked the 



THE NE W ROME. 113 

priests how it might be closed once more. The priests 
replied: 

''Search out what is the most precious thing of the 
Roman people, for that is what must be thrown into 
the chasm in order to satisfy the gods and make sure 
that the city will last forever/' 

As they considered among themselves what this 
**most precious thing of the Roman people'' might be, 
Marcus Curtius, a youth who had done great deeds in 
war, came forward. 

"Can you doubt what this means?" he exclaimed. 
"Is there any greater good for Romans than arms and 
bravery? This is what the gods demand; and I will 
devote myself as a sacrifice to them, so that my coun- 
try may never perish.'' 

He put on his richest armor and, mounting his 
horse, rode to the edge of the chasm, while the people 
of Rome crowded the Forum and stood watching. 
When he had prayed to the gods, Curtius leaped his 
horse into the opening, and horse and rider disap- 
peared from sight. After that the chasm closed, and 
all that was left to show where the opening had been 
was a little pool of water, which the Romans named 
the Curtian lake, in honor of the youth who had so 
willingly offered himself for the good of his city. 

At another time, a Roman named Decius Mus sac- 
rificed himself in the same unselfish spirit. Decius 
was consul, and was leading the army in battle when 
he saw that the Romans v/ere giving way and the 
enemy was pressing on to victory. 

"Valerius," he cried, to the chief priest who stood 
by him, "we have need of the aid of the gods. Come! 



114 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

tell me the words by which I may offer myself a sacri- 
fice for my soldiers. 'V 

Then, with his head covered and leaning on a spear, 
he repeated these words after the priest: 

* 'Janus, Jupiter, Father Mars, and all ye gods under 
whose power we and our enemies are: I pray you that 
you will grant strength to the Roman people, that they 
may strike the enemies of the Romans with terror, 
dismay, and death. I devote the soldiers of the enemy 
together with myself to the gods of the dead, for the 
sake of the soldiers of Rome." 

He then mounted his horse, and rushed into the 
midst of the enemy, where he fell pierced by many 
weapons. The Roman soldiers, who followed him in 
his attack, were victorious; but they freely gave the 
honor of their success to the man who had offered him- 
self as a sacrifice for his army. 



THE WAR WITH PYRRHUS. 115 

XVII 

The War with Pyrrhus. 

THE curving range of the Apennines divides Italy 
into three distinct parts, — the valley of the Po, 
the longer western slope and the plains about the 
southern gulf. Within a hundred years after the attack 
of the Gauls the Romans ruled all the lands around 
them between the mountains and the sea. But they 
had not yet crossed the Apennines to the north; nor had 
they thought of going beyond them in the south, until 
something happened there which forced them to 
do so. 

The southern coast of Italy was not occupied by 
Italians, but by Greeks, who had come across the sea 
a long time before, and built cities on the southern 
shores of the peninsula, and on the island of Sicily. 
They were a gay, fickle people, who had grown to be 
much less worthy in character than the old Greeks who 
had fought the Persians so well in former days. They 
preferred to hire soldiers to fight for them, instead of 
doing it themselves; for they loved the bustle and 
chatter of their city life, and the amusement of their 
open-air theaters, too much to exchange them will- 
ingly for the dangers of the battlefield. 

The most important of these Greek cities in Italy 
was Tarentum, which lay on the western side of the 
heel of the peninsula. There the people had built 



116 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

their theater in a place which overlooked the sea; and 
as they were gathered here one day, they saw ten 
Roman war vessels approaching the city harbor. 
Now there was an agreement between the Romans 
and the people of Tarentum that the Roman war ships 
should not sail beyond a certain point on the southern 
shore, so when the Tarentines saw these vessels com- 
ing in close to their town they were very angry. They 
did not stop to think that the Romans might be com- 
ing peacefully, and with no thought of harm. They 
rushed headlong from the theater to the shore, boarded 
their ships and rowed out to attack the Roman ves- 
sels. As the Romans were entirely unprepared for 
battle, five of their ships were sunk, and the men were 
taken prisoners. 

The other five ships managed to escape, and when 
they returned to Rome with the news of how they 
had been treated the Romans were very indignant. 
But they did not want to go to war with the people 
of Tarentum; so, instead of preparing an army to 
attack the city, they sent ambassadors to demand an 
explanation of the wrong that had been done them. 

When these ambassadors reached Tarentum, they 
were led before a large body of the citizens, in order 
that they might state their business in the hearing of 
all. Their grave manner and broken speech, as they 
tried to make their meaning clear in the Greek tongue, 
amused the Tarentines immensely. They laughed at 
them and mocked their blunders, and, at last, one 
wretched fellow threw dirt on the clean white toga of 
one of the ambassadors. 

At this, the Greeks laughed louder than ever; but 



THE WAR WITH PYRRHUS, 117 

the insulted Roman raised the soiled folds of his 
gown and held them before the eyes of the people. 

"Laugh on," he cried; "but this stain can only be 
washed out with blood." 

Then the ambassadors departed, and the two cities 
began to prepare for war, — but in what different ways! 
The Romans gathered their men together as usual, 
and sent them under the command of a consul across 
the mountains into southern Italy. The Tarentines 
meanwhile went over into Greece, seeking a general 
there who could bring an army to fight for them 
against the Romans. 

There were many men in the Grecian peninsula at 
this time who were willing enough to fight, and who 
knew how to fight well; but the man to whom the 
Tarentines sent was especially ready to give the help 
that they asked. This was Pyrrhus, the king of one 
of the little countries of western Greece, — a brave 
and generous man, and one of the best soldiers of that 
time. He was related to Alexander the Great, who a 
few years before this had become the conqueror of 
Greece and of much of the world besides. From his 
boyhood Pyrrhus had lived with the Greek armies at 
home, in Asia, and in Egypt; and he had determined 
that if he should ever have the chance he would try to 
become, like Alexander, a conqueror of great nations. 
So now, when the Tarentines sent to him and begged 
his help against the Romans, he readily gave his 
consent, and began to plan victories for himself in 
the west as great as those which Alexander had won 
in the east. For he meant not only to help the Taren- 
tines against Rome, but to bring all the Greek cities 



118 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

of Italy and of the island of Sicily under his rule at 
the same time. 

When Pyrrhus had gathered his army together and 
sailed to Tarentum, the foolish people of that city 
suddenly discovered that they had given themselves 
a stern ruler where they had only asked help against 
their enemy. The king had no patience with their 
lightness and gayety in such a time of danger. He 
closed their theater and public meeting-places, and set 
the people to work helping his soldiers in their task 
of preparing for the Romans. The Tarentines obeyed 
unwillingly; perhaps they were already beginning to 
wish that they had not been so rash in making trouble, 
or so ready to ask aid when the trouble had come. 

Soon after Pyrrhus reached Italy, the two armies — 
the Greek and the Roman — met in battle near Taren- 
tum. On both sides, the men fought so bravely that 
for a time it could not be told which would gain the 
victory. The Greeks formed their men in one solid 
mass, drawn close together with their shields touching 
and their great spears, eighteen feet long, extending 
far out in front of them. The Romans grouped 
theirs in many small companies, which were arranged 
loosely into three ranks, one behind the other; in this 
way each company and each rank could act separately, 
while all supported one another. The Greeks were 
the strongest in defending themselves on a level sur- 
face, for the Romans could scarcely break through the 
dense hedge of their spear-points, and get near enough 
to reach them with their short swords. But the 
Romans could attack their enemies more freely than the 
Greeks, and could move more easily over rough ground. 



THE WAR WITH PYRRHUS. 



119 



In this battle, the Romans rushed time and again at 
the solid ranks of the Greeks, and seemed determined 
never to give up the effort to break through and throw 
them into disorder. But Pyrrhus had with him in his 
army something of which the Romans had never seen 
the like before. This was a herd of elephants; and 
when these huge beasts charged upon the army, with 
towers on their backs full of 
armed men, the Romans fal- 
tered in dismay. Their 
horses went mad with fright 
and, whirling about, trampled 
down their own masters. 
Then the Romans retreated 
in confusion, and the battle 
was lost. 

Pyrrhus had gained the 
first victory, but he saw that 
he had met enemies who 
could not be despised, even 
though they had been de- 
feated. When the fight was 
over,hestood upon the battle- 
field and saw the Roman dead 
all lying with their faces turned toward the enemy. 

*Tf these were my soldiers," he said, "and I were 
their general, I could surely conquer the world." 

After this battle, Pyrrhus sent his trusted friend 
Cineas to Rome to propose terms of peace to the 
Senate, for he thought that the Romans would now be 
ready to give up the war. Cineas was as great as a states- 
man as Pyrrhus was as a general, and it was said of 




A ROMAN SOLDIER. 



120 THE CITY OF THE SB VEN HILLS. 

him that his tongue had taken more cities for his mas- 
ter than Pyrrhus had taken with his armies. During 
his visit to Rome, he made himself most agreeable to 
the citizens. He had such a good memory that after 
one day he could call every great man by his name, 
and he was such a good judge of men that he never 
failed to treat each person in the way that would be 
most pleasing to him. So all the Romans liked him, 
though he was their enemy; and the Senate was almost 
persuaded by him to do as Pyrrhus wished, and settle 
upon a peace. 

But there was one person in Rome whom Cineas 
could not win over. This was Appius Claudius, who 
had constructed the first aqueduct, and had built the 
Appian Way. He was now an old man, gray-haired 
and blind, and it had been a long time since he had 
gone from his home to take his place in the Senate. 
But when he heard that peace was about to be made 
with Pyrrhus, he commanded his servants to take him 
up and carry him in his chair through the Forum to 
the Senate house. There his sons and sons-in-law 
met him at the door, and when he was led in and rose 
to speak, he was received with a respectful silence. 

"Until this time, O senators," he said, **I have borne 
the misfortune of my blindness with some impatience. 
But now, when I hear this dishonorable purpose of 
yours, it is my great sorrow that, being blind, I am 
not deaf also. To make peace with Pyrrhus will be 
to destroy the glory of Rome. Do not persuade your- 
selves that making a friend of Pyrrhus is the way to 
send him back to his country. It is the way, rather, 
to show the world that you can be conquered in one 



THE WAR WITH PYRRHUS, 121 

battle; and soon other invaders will be upon us. The 
true way to rid us of our dangers is for Rome never to 
treat with a foreign enemy while his army remains in 
Italy/' 

The senators were shamed by the noble courage of 
the aged Claudius. Instead of making peace with 
Pyrrhus, they sent Cineas back to his master with the 
message that they would not treat with him about 
terms of peace and friendship until his army was 
removed from Italian soil; and they added that, so 
long as he stayed in Italy under arms, they would con- 
tinue to fight with him, even though he should defeat 
them many times. 

This firm answer made a deep impression upon 
Cineas. When he returned to Pyrrhus and the king 
asked him what he thought of the Romans and their 
government, he answered: 

''The Roman Senate, Sire, is an assembly of kings." 

Pyrrhus himself soon had a chance to test the 
spirit of one of the Romans of that day. The Senate 
sent Caius Fabricius to the king, shortly after this, to 
treat for the return of the Roman prisoners who had 
been taken by the Greeks. Cineas told Pyrrhus that 
Fabricius was one who stood very high among the 
Romans, as an honest man and a good soldier, but 
that he was very poor. So Pyrrhus received him with 
kindness, and tried to bribe him with gold. But 
Fabricius refused to accept the king's gifts. 

"If I am dishonest," said he, *'how can I be worth 
a bribe? And if I am honest, how can you expect me 
to take one?" 

Then Pyrrhus tried him in another way. The next 



122 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

day he commanded that one of the largest of the 
elephants should be placed behind the curtains while 
he and Fabricius "Sat talking together. At a signal 
from the king, the curtains were drawn aside, and the 
elephant, raising his trunk just over the head of 
Fabricius, trumpeted loudly. But the Roman only 
turned quietly, and said to Pyrrhus: 

"Neither your money yesterday, O King, nor this 
beast to-day, can move me." 

Pyrrhus himself was noble enough of soul to admire 
Fabricius greatly. To show his favor to him, he 
allowed him to take the Roman prisoners with him 
when he returned to Rome; for a great festival in 
honor of the god Saturn was about to be celebrated, 
and all Romans wished to take part in it. Fabricius, 
for his part, gave a promise to the king that if the 
Senate did not agree to make peace, the men should 
all come back to him when the holiday was past. 

This festival to Saturn was held each year in the lat- 
ter part of December, and was a sort of Thanksgiving 
holiday. It was a time when the Romans gave pres- 
ents, as we do now at Christmas, and the poor people 
received gifts of oil and wine, while the servants of 
the wealthy carried baskets of nuts, figs, and apples to 
their masters' friends. In this happy, joyous season, 
the boys all had new tunics and new shoes, and 
the slaves were allowed to be equal to their masters 
for once in the long year. 

The holiday must have passed only too quickly for 
the prisoners of Pyrrhus; for the Roman Senate again 
refused to agree to a peace, and they were sent back 
to the Greeks as soon as the festival was over. The 



THE WAR WITH PYRRHUS. 123 

senators were so anxious to keep the promise of 
Fabricius unbroken, that they commanded that any 
prisoner who remained behind should be put to 
death; but this order was not needed, for they all 
returned faithfully to their captivity. 

It was not long after this that the Romans and the 
Greeks met in battle a second time. Once more the 
Romans were defeated; but they fought as stubbornly 
as they had in the first battle, and again it was only 
the elephants that won the victory for Pyrrhus. After 
the battle, one of the friends of the king came to him 
and wished him joy over his victory. But Pyrrhus 
replied, seeing the large number of his own men who 
had fallen: **One more such victory as this, and I am 
lost." 

The king was thinking how far he was from the 
country of his own brave soldiers; and how difficult it 
would be to fill up the vacant places in his army with 
men who were as good as those he had. lost, for even 
Pyrrhus could not make warriors out of the Greeks of 
Italy. His situation was very different therefore from 
that of the Romans. Among them every man was a 
soldier, and as soon as one army was destroyed, 
another as large and well-trained could be raised to 
take its place. 

So after this second battle, Pyrrhus did not care to 
fight again with the Romans. He left Italy and went 
over to the island of Sicily, and tried to make himself 
master of the cities there. He remained away for 
three years, and when he returned to Italy, he found 
that the Romans had made good use of his absence. 
They had gained all the southern part of the peninsula 



124 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

except the city of Tarentum, and they were now in 
better condition to give battle to him than ever. 

The Romans had seen that the close ranks of the 
Greeks fought best upon a level surface; so, when a 
third battle with Pyrrhus took place, they placed 
themselves on rough, uneven ground. The soldiers 
had also lost much of their fear of the elephants by 
this time; and, when the great beasts charged at them 
in this battle, they hurled darts and spears at them, 
and so wounded and vexed the animals that at last 
they turned and rushed back upon the Greeks them- 
selves. In this way the solid mass of Pyrrhus's sol- 
diers was broken up, and after that it was not long 
until his whole army was terribly defeated. 

After this third battle, Pyrrhus was obliged to leave 
Italy and go back to his own country, a disappointed 
man. He had failed to conquer an empire in the west, 
as he had planned; and the Romans, with their power 
for enduring defeat, had been the cause of his failure. 
Not long after he had gone, the city of Tarentum itself 
fell into the hands of the Romans; and this left them 
masters of the entire peninsula south of the valley of 
the Po. 



ROME AND THE CARTHAGINIANS, 125 



XVIII 

Rome and the Carthaginians. 

Now that the Romans had become masters of 
almost the whole of the peninsula of Italy, you 
might expect that their wars would cease, and that they 
would be left to govern peaceably what their arms 
had won. Instead of this they had soon to prepare 
for a struggle which was to prove the longest and 
hardest that they ever experienced. This was due to 
the fact that just across the Mediterranean Sea from 
Italy, there was another people who had also been able 
to make themselves rulers over other lands and 
nations; and, after the Romans had conquered the 
Greeks of southern Italy, there was no longer any 
barrier standing between these two powerful states. 

This nation had founded the city of Carthage more 
than a hundred years before Romulus began the first 
settlement on the Palatine hill; and it had now become 
a larger and richer city than Rome. Its people ruled 
a great part of the coast of Africa, Spain, and Sicily, 
and most of the islands of the western Mediterra- 
nean. 

The people of Carthage were Phoenicians, and their 
mother country was along the eastern shores of the 
Mediterranean. They were of the same race as the 
Jews, who dwelt near by the mother land in Palestine; 
and they were more foreign in speech and religion 



126 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

than any other people with whom the Romans had 
come in contact. They were a nation of sailors and 
traders and their ships were the best [then known to 
men. They were the first to discover that they could 
steer their vessels through boundless waters by using 
the North Star to guide them; so, while other nations 
still kept safely in sight of the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean in their voyaging, the Phoenicians pushed 
boldly out into the broad Atlantic, and sailed as far as 
the island of Great Britain on the north, and some 
distance south down the coast of Africa. They were 
the explorers of that long-ago time; and moreover, 
like the nations of later days, they made settlements 
wherever they could find a good harbor, with a fertile 
country around it, or with mines of tin or precious 
metals. And they did more, even, than this. In 
order to keep their records and accounts, they invented 
the alphabet which we use to-day; and taught these 
letters to the Greeks and the Romans, who made use 
of them in writing their different languages. 

So, when the Phoenicians left their old home to 
found a new city in the west, they brought with them 
much useful knowledge. Their children, too, and 
their children's children, made good use of their 
inherited wisdom. By the time the Romans had con- 
quered southern Italy, their city of Carthage was said 
to cover twenty-three miles of country; and the sails 
of its ships dotted the waters of the western Mediter- 
ranean. The Carthaginians were good builders, also, 
as well as good sailors and traders. They had pro- 
tected their city on the land side by three great walls, 
one inside of the other, and these walls were far 



ROME AND THE CARTHAGINIANS, 127 

stronger and better built than those which surrounded 
Rome. The space between the walls was taken up 
with stables for the elephants and war horses, and here 
were kept three hundred of the one and four thousand 
of the other. To shelter their great fleet two large 
harbors had been dug, in addition to the natural bay 
on which the city was built, — one for the trading ves- 
sels, and one for the ships of war. 

The Carthaginians were a powerful nation and very 
jealous of their power, being determined to prevent 
any other people from sharing in it. They regarded 
the sea, on which their many vessels came and went, 
as belonging to themselves alone; and when they 
found the ships of other nations sailing in their waters, 
they did not hesitate to capture the vessels and to 
drown the men that they found on them. They are 
said to have boasted once that, without their permis- 
sion, the Romans could not even wash their hands in 
the waters of the sea. 

The struggle between the Romans and the Carthagin- 
ians began in Sicily. The Carthaginians had long 
had possession of the western part of the island, while 
the eastern part was ruled by a number of Greek cities. 
It was to take the part of these cities against the 
Carthaginians that Pyrrhus had gone to Sicily; so the 
Carthaginians were friendly to Rome until the Romans 
had driven Pyrrhus back to his eastern home. As soon 
as he was disposed of, however, the friendship 
between Rome and Carthage began to cool. Pyrrhus 
had foreseen that this would be so; and as he had left 
the island of Sicily he had looked back at its shores 
and exclaimed; 



128 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

What a field we are leaving for the Romans and the 
Carthaginians to contend upon!" 

Directly across the strait which separates Italy from 
Sicily, was a Greek city which soon after this got into 
very serious trouble with one of its neighbors. The 
people in the city were divided as to what they should 
do for help; so one party sent to Rome for aid, while 
the other called upon the Carthaginians. Now, the 
Romans could not permit the Carthaginians to gain a 
foothold so near to Italy as this and, rather against their 
will, they felt obliged to send the aid which had been 
asked. The result was the first war between Rome and 
Carthage. 

Although the Carthaginians were masters of the sea, 
they were not prepared to fight the Romans on land. 
They had no army of citizens to depend on, such as 
Rome possessed. They hired their soldiers, as you 
will remember the Tarentines did, and gathered them 
together from many different countries. So. it took 
them a long time to get a strong army ready to fight 
in Sicily; and in the meantime the Romans won the 
first victories and took important towns from them. 

But the Romans soon discovered that they could 
make few lasting gains in fighting against the Cartha- 
ginians, without a navy to help them. They might 
conquer all Sicily with their armies, but when the war 
vessels of the Carthaginians came sailing around the 
island, the cities on the coast which had given thern- 
selves to the Romans would have to go back to the 
Carthaginian side once more. Besides this, the ships 
of Carthage could dash in from the sea upon the coast 
of Italy, and destroy a city or ruin a whole stretch of 



ROME AND THE CARTHAGINIANS. 129 

country before the Italians could make a move to 
defend themselves. Meanwhile the Romans did not 
seem to be able to get at their enemies to do them any- 
serious harm, for they had few war vessels and little 
experience in using those they had. 

When the Romans realized this, they did one of the 
most daring things that we read of in their history. 
They determined to build a fleet, and go out and meet 
the Carthaginians on the sea, where they had so long 
been masters. They took for their model a Cartha- 
ginian ship that had been wrecked on their shores, and 
within sixty days, the old writers say, a growing wood 
was changed into a fleet of one hundred and twenty 
ships. 

While the vessels were building, they had also to 
find rowers for their new fleet, and to train them for 
their work. To do this, tiers of seats, arranged one 
above the other, like the benches of rowers in a ship, 
were built upon the ground; and on these the men 
took their places daily, and were taught to move their 
great oars all together, in obedience to the voice of 
the rowing master. Then, when the ships were done, 
the men were given a short time to practice on the 
water the movements which they had learned on the 
land; and after that the fleet sailed away to Sicily to 
seek out and fight their enemies. 

But for all their bold and determined spirit, the 
Romans knew very well that they could not, for some 
time, hope to be a match for the skilful Carthaginian 
sailors. Their hastily-made ships were clumsy and 
hard to manage, and the green wood of which they 
were l)iiilt was already beginning to warp apart and 



130 



THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 



let in the water. Their rowers and sailing-masters did 
not know how to make the best even of the poor ships 
they had; and for knowledge of the sea itself — 
its storms and currents, and the harbors of its coasts 
— they had to depend upon people of other cities, 
whom they hired to help them. The only way that 




NAVAL BATTLE. 



the Romans could hope to win a sea-fight was by 
getting their vessels right alongside the ships of the 
enemy, and then fighting it out with their spears and 
swords, just as they would a battle on the land. 

To enable their vessels to do this, some clever man 
thought out a plan which was adopted on all the ships. 
A strong mast was planted in the prow of every Roman 



ROME AND THE CARTHAGINIANS, ] 131 

vessel, and at the base of this was fastened a long plank 
or platform, in such a way that the outer end could 
be pulled up and let down, like the drawbridge of a 
castle, in front or on either side of the vessel. At the 
end of the plank, and pointing downward, a long spike 
was fixed, so that when the plank was let fall on the 
deck of the enemy's ship this spike would sink deep 
into the wood and hold it fast. When the platform 
was raised against the mast, this sharp piece of iron 
.sticking out in front looked so much like the bill of 
some great bird that the Romans gave the name of 
**crow" to the contrivance. 

When the Carthaginians saw the Roman ships sail- 
ing up to meet them, they were puzzled at first by the 
strange structures in their bows; but they knew that 
the Romans were ignorant of everything that had to 
do with managing ships, so they supposed that it was 
some clumsy device of no importance. They rowed 
straight out to meet them, therefore, and sought to 
ram their vessels with the prows of their own ships. 
But no sooner did a Carthaginian vessel come within 
reach of a Roman than down fell the ''crow" of the 
latter, and the two ships were held firmly together. 
Then Roman soldiers poured across the bridge thus 
made, and fought upon the deck as if on land. In 
this way they captured or destroyed fifty of the Car- 
thaginian ships, and those that were left were glad 
enough to find safety in flight from the terrible Roman 
"crows." 

This was the first Roman victory on the sea, but 
many others followed it. Now that they had a fleet, 
moreover, the Romans could take an army across the 



132 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HHLS. 

sea to Africa, and there fight the Carthaginians in their 
own land. This they did, and the Roman general, 
Regulus, was very successful for a time, pushing the 
Carthaginians so hard that they were forced at last to 
ask for peace. 

Then Regulus showed how little he knew the brave 
people with whom he was fighting. He seemed to 
think that Carthage was as completely conquered as 
the little Italian towns which Rome had been taking, 
one by one, for so many years. The terms of peace 
which he offered were so hard that the Carthaginians 
concluded that they could not be left in a worse con- 
dition even if Carthage itself was captured, so they 
resolved to continue the war. Fortunately for them, 
the Carthaginians now found a good general, who 
knew how to use their cavalry and their elephants. 
Soon Regulus himself was defeated and taken prisoner; 
and for five years he was kept a captive at Carthage, 
while the war continued on land and sea. 

It had been thirteen years since the Romans had first 
crossed over into Sicily, when ambassadors came again 
from Carthage to treat for peace. According to the old 
stories Regulus was now taken from his prison and sent 
to Rome, along with the Carthaginian ambassadors, to 
assist them in their purpose; and he was obliged to 
promise that if peace was not made he would return at 
once to Carthage. 

The Carthaginians sent Regulus with their ambassa- 
dors because they thought that, for his own sake, he 
would do all that he could to help bring the war to a 
close. But when he reached Rome, he was noble 
enough to forget himself in his love for his country. 



ROME AND THE CARTHAGINIANS. 133 

He advised the Senate not to make peace, and not to 
exchange their Carthaginian prisoners for the Romans 
who were held at Carthage. 

"Let not the Senate buy with gold what ought to be 
won back only by force of arms; and let those Romans 
who surrendered when they ought to have died in 
battle, die at last in the land that saw their disgrace.'* 

When Regulus said this, he knew that if he returned 
after such a speech, the Carthaginians would put him 
to death. For a while the Senate hesitated, out of 
pity for him; but at last the peace which had been 
asked was refused. Then Regulus went quietly back 
to Carthage, as he had promised; and if we may 
believe the story, met a cruel death at the hands of 
his disappointed enemies. 

For ten years longer, the war dragged on, until at 
last neither Carthage nor Rome had money or men to 
spend in further efforts. Rome had been most unfor- 
tunate at sea. Fleet after fleet which she sent to Sicily 
and Africa was wrecked and destroyed by the terrible 
storms which rage there at certain seasons of the year, 
and which the Romans were not experienced enough 
to guard against. 

After this had happened several times, the people 
determined to make one more effort. Their ships 
were all gone, and there was no money in the treasury 
to build new ones; but the wealthy citizens of Rome 
joined together and built a fleet of two hundred vessels 
at their own expense. They only asked, in return, 
that if the city could ever repay them, it would do so. 

With this fleet the Romans again set out, and this 
time they were as successful as in their first venture 



134 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

upon the sea. They had now learned from their mis- 
takes and misfortunes, while the Carthaginians had 
become careless; so, when the Romans came up with 
the Carthaginian fleet off the western coast of Sicily, 
they sunk fifty of the enemy's vessels and captured 
seventy more. 

Then Carthage and Rome made peace, for they were 
too well matched at the time for either city to be 
entirely conquered. Carthage had suffered most in 
this first war; so she was obliged to give up all claim 
to Sicily, to release the Roman prisoners without a 
ransom, and besides this, to pay a large sum of money 
for the expenses of the war. Rome took possession of 
the part of Sicily which the Carthaginians had held, 
and set up a government over it. Before many years 
had gone by, the whole island passed under Roman 
control, and became the city's first possession outside 
of Italy. 



THE WAR WITH HANNIBAL, 135 



XIX 
The War with Hannibal. 

AFTER the Carthaginians had made peace with 
L Rome, and had withdrawn their troops from 
Sicily, they had to endure three terrible years of war- 
fare with their own subjects and soldiers, in the coun- 
try round about Carthage. But through all this time 
of defeat and disaster, there was one man among them 
who remained undismayed. 

This was Hamilcar, the greatest of their generals, 
and at that time the only man among the Carthaginians 
whom the Romans feared. Hamilcar had fought 
Rome successfully, as long as his city could give him 
money and men to fight with; and when he saw that 
Carthage could do no more, it was he who had made 
the peace. He had no thought of a lasting peace with 
Rome, however; he hated that city as much as he 
loved Carthage, and he was already planning a way to 
injure her, while he made up to his own country for 
the loss of Sicily. Both of these objects he thought he 
could gain by conquering the Spanish peninsula, where 
the Carthaginians had already made settlements; and 
when he brought the matter before the Senate at 
Carthage, they gave him permission to take an army 
there and see what he could do. 

As Hamilcar was preparing to leave for Spain with 



136 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

his army, he went before the altar of one of the 
Carthaginian gods, and offered sacrifice for the success 
of his plans. During the ceremony, his little son 
Hannibal, who was then about nine years old, stood 
beside him; and when it was over, Hamilcar turned 
to the boy and asked if he would like to go with 
him to Spain. When the lad eagerly answered that 
he should like very much to do so, Hamilcar took him 
by the hand and led him to the altar. 

'/Then lay your hand upon the sacrifice," he com- 
manded, "and swear that you will never be friends 
with Rome, so long as you shall live.'' 

The boy did as he was bidden; and in due time he 
was taken away to Spain, with the thought deep in his 
breast that he was now the enemy of Rome forever. 
From that time, he grew up in the camp of his father, 
and his daily lessons were in the arts of war and of 
generalship. He was Hamilcar's companion while 
he conquered the rich peninsula of Spain for Carthage; 
and before his father had died, Hannibal had learned 
all that he could teach him of warfare and of govern- 
ment. 

After Hamilcar was gone, Hannibal proved himself a 
worthy son of so great a parent, and when he was only 
twenty-seven years of age, he was chosen to fill his 
father's place as commander of the Carthaginian army. 
This army was made up, in large part, of men from 
the conquered nations in Spain; but under the leader- 
ship of Hannibal, it did not matter much who the 
soldiers were that formed the army. His men became 
simply the soldiers of Hannibal, and were so filled 
with love and admiration for their general, thai they 



THE WAR WITH HANNIBAL. 137 

were ready to follow him anywhere and do anything 
that he commanded. 

When Hannibal had got his army in good condition, 
he attacked a town in Spain that was friendly to 
Rome, and conquered it. The Roman Senate was 
already beginning to fear this son of Hamilcar as it 
had feared Hamilcar himself, and when news came of 
the attack on this friendly town, it sent ambassadors to 
Carthage to demand that Hannibal should be given 
up to the Romans. But the Carthaginians would not 
consent to this. Then the leader of the Roman 
ambassadors gathered up the folds of his toga and held 
them before him, saying: 

*T carry here peace and war; which shall I give to 
you?" 

**You may give us whichever you choose," replied 
the Carthaginians. 

*'Then I give you war," cried the Roman, as he 
shook out the folds of his toga. 

In this way, the second war between Rome and 
Carthage was declared. But it was not really a strug- 
gle between the two states which now began. It was 
rather a conflict between all the power of Rome, on 
the one side, and Hannibal, with his devoted army 
and his vow of hatred to the Romans, on the other. 
When Hannibal heard in Spain that war had been 
declared, he was prepared for it, and needed only to 
consider how he might attack his enemies. 

He was determined that this war should be fought 
on Roman, and not on Carthaginian, ground; in Italy, 
instead of Africa. With this settled upon he had the 
choice of two ways of reaching Italy from Spain. He 



138 THE CITY OF THE SB VEN HILLS. 

might cross the sea in Carthaginian ships, or he might j 
go by land, through Spain and Gaul. If he chose th( 
latter way, he would have to make a long march 
through an unfriendly country, and cross the forbid- 
ding barrier of the Alps. If he chose to go by sea, 
he ran the risk of wreck by storms, and defeat and 
capture by the Roman fleet, which was now stronger 




\ HANNIBAL. 

than that of the Carthaginians. Either way, it was a 
choice of evils. 

Hannibal decided to go by land; but we maybe sure 
of one thing, — that he did not know quite how diffi- 
cult a path it was that he had chosen. He was the 
greatest man of his time, but he had no good way of 
learning the simple facts about the world he lived in 



THE WAR WITH HANNIBAL, 139 

which you are taught in every day's geography lesson. 
The thought of the mountains to be climbed, and the 
rivers to be crossed, in the long journey, did not make 
him hesitate, for he did not fully know them. He 
knew that the Gauls had passed through the high Alps, 
— then why might not he do it also? He could have 
had no clear idea even of the distance his soldiers 
would have to march before they reached Italy; for 
his guides at any place could tell him the way and the 
distances for only a few days' march ahead, and when 
that was passed he would have to find other persons 
who knew the country beyond, and would undertake 
to guide his army on. 

It was in the month of April that Hannibal started 
on his long march. Besides the many thousand men, 
both infantry and cavalry, who made up his army, he 
took with him thirty-seven of the Carthaginian ele- 
phants to use in battle, and many horses and mules to 
carry the baggage of the' army. 

As soon as he got out of the territory that had been 
conquered by Carthage, his troubles began. He had to 
fight his way against unfriendly natives through north- 
ern Spain; and it was midsummer before he had 
crossed the mountains which separate the peninsula 
from Gaul. Then, in a short time, he came to the 
swiftly flowing Rhone, where the Gauls gathered on 
the opposite bank, and tried to prevent him from 
crossing. Hannibal soon overcame these enemies, 
however, and led his army safely over in canoes and 
boats, which his men collected along the river; but 
the elephants could only be taken across after he had 
prepared great rafts on which to ferry them. 



140 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

After they had passed the Rhone, the way was easy 
until they came to the foot of the Alps; but there the 
greatest difificulties of the march began. The way now 
lay along steep, narrow paths, up which the horses and 
elephants could scarcely climb; and often a single slip 
or misstep would have been enough to send them roll- 
ing and tumbling a thousand feet down the mountain 
side, to be dashed to pieces on the rocks below. The 
people who inhabited the mountains, too, were 
unfriendly to the Carthaginians. They stationed them- 
selves on either side of the zigzag path up which the 
army toiled, and hurled stones and weapons upon 
them from the heights above. These threw the long 
line of baggage animals into great disorder, and the 
wounded and frightened horses galloped back and 
forth, and either fell thepiselves or crowded others off 
over the cliffs and down the mountain side, carrying 
with them as they fell baggage which the army could 
ill afford to lose. Again arid again Hannibal was 
obliged to take some of his best men and clamber up 
the cliffs and over the rocks to attack and drive off 
these enemies; and once in such an attempt he and 
his men were separated from the rest of the army, and 
were forced to remain on their guard all night long, 
under the shelter of a great white rock which stood 
by the side of the path. 

At last, on the ninth day after they had begun their 
ascent, the army reached the summit, of the pass. 
After that they were no longer troubled by attacks 
from the mountain tribes. Here Hannibal remained 
for two days, in order to rest his men and beasts; and 
while they tarried there, many of the horses which 



THE WAR WITH HANNIBAL. 141 

had taken fright and run away, and many of the beasts 
of burden, which had gotten rid of their loads, came 
straggling into camp, having followed the tracks of the 
army. 

After they had rested sufficiently, they began the 
descent into Italy, and then new difficulties presented 
themselves. The way was down-hill, to be sure, but 
the slope was more abrupt than on the other side of 
the mountains. It was now late in the autumn, more- 
over; and as the cold comes early in these high regions, 
the paths were already covered with a thin coating of 
new-fallen snow, which caused the men and beasts to 
slip, and made the descent more dangerous than the 
ascent had been. At one place, too, they found that 
a landslide had completely blocked the path, and it 
took four anxious days of hard labor to cut out a new 
one for the horses and elephants in the side of the 
rocky cliff. 

But, through all their trials and dangers, Hannibal 
cheered and encouraged the army. When they 
reached a height from which the rich plain of the val- 
ley of the River Po could be seen in the distance, he 
called his men about him, and pointing to it, cried: 

"There is Italy! There are friends waiting to wel- 
come you and aid you against the tyrant Rome! You 
have now climbed not only the walls of Italy, but of 
Rome itself; and after one, or at most two, battles, 
all these fertile fields will be yours." 

Then the soldiers pushed on with new courage; and 
on the fifteenth day after they had entered the Alps, 
they came out on the other side of them, in Italy. 
But the army was terribly weakened by the hardships 



142 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

of the way and the fights with the natives. More than 
half of the men and horses, and many of the elephants, 
had been lost; and the soldiers who remained were so 
broken and worn by their sufferings that they looked 
not like men, but the shadows of men. 

Still, the courage of Hannibal did not fail him. He 
camped his soldiers at the foot of the Alps among 
friendly tribes of the Gauls, and allowed them to rest 
and refresh themselves for several days, while the poor 
lean horses were turned out to pasture. Soon, inspired 
by his brave spirit, all were ready once more to fol- 
low wherever he chose to lead them. 

The Romans had not expected that Hannibal would 
attempt to cross the Alps and carry the war into Italy; 
or, if any of them did expect it, they had no idea that 
he would be so soon upon them. When news came that 
the Carthaginian was already in Italy, they were sur- 
prised and dismayed; but still they hurriedly gathered 
together their forces, and sent them on to meet the 
enemy. 

Any one but Hannibal they might have stopped, but 
him they could not check. He defeated them in bat- 
tle after battle, and swept on through their country, 
with his little army, in a torrent that could not be 
resisted. The Romans fought desperately, aroused by 
fear for the city itself; but the armies that faced Han- 
nibal were destroyed in quick succession. In one bat- 
tle the Romans lost nearly 70,000 men, including 
eighty senators; and the Carthaginians gathered from 
the rich men who had fallen on that field enough gold 
rings to fill a bushel measure. After that, the name 
of Hannibal became a word of fear to old and young 



THE WAR WITH HANNIBAL. 143 

alike; and nearly two hundred years from this time, 
the memory of that terror still lingered. A Roman 
poet then wrote of him, calling him *'the dread Han- 
nibal," and saying that his march through Italy was 
like the sweep of the eastern gales that had wrecked 
so many Roman fleets in the waters of Sicily, or like 
the rush of flames through a blazing forest of pines. 

The Romans had learned how to defeat the Gauls 
and the Greeks in battle, but they were long in learn- 
ing how to defeat Hannibal. He was greater than 
they, and, as long as he remained in Italy, the city 
of Rome trembled. But the Senate remained strong 
in the midst of the public terror, and while the people 
mourned for their dead, the senators only sought men 
for another army to-take the place of the one that had 
last been destroyed. Their generals, too, though they 
could not repulse Hannibal in battle, learned to be 
cautious. They would no longer lead their armies 
out to fight against him, but hurig about watching his 
camp, in order to capture any of the Carthaginians who 
might become separated from the main body while 
gathering food for themselves or for their horses. In 
this way, they sought to reduce Hannibal by cutting 
off his supplies, and so make it necessary at last for 
him to leave Italy of his own accord. 

In the end, Rome succeeded, as she always did. 
"The Romans," said an old writer who described this 
war, "are never so dangerous as when they seem just 
about to be conquered." Hannibal found, as Pyrrhiis 
had done before him, that he was fighting a people 
who could replace a defeated army with another which 
was just as ready as the first to fight to the death. 



144 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

Most of the peoples of Italy, too, remained faithful 
to Rome in this time of trial; and Hannibal was dis- 
appointed in getting the help from them, against their 
conqueror, upon which he had counted. So, at last, 
he was forced to look to Africa and to Spain for new 
men, and supplies for his army. But when his brother 
came over the Alps, bringing him help from Spain, he 
was defeated and slain by the Romans before Hanni- 
bal knew that he was in Italy. Besides this, the Sen- 
ate found men and ships enough to carry the war over 
into Spain and Africa; and, by and by, the Cartha- 
ginians were forced to order Hannibal back from 
Italy to defend Carthage itself against the attacks of 
Rome. 

So, after fifteen years of victories, which had brought 
the war no nearer to a close, Hannibal was obliged to 
leave Italy and return to Africa, for the first time 
since he had left there, as a boy. When he arrived, 
he found Carthage much weakened by the war. The 
general in command of the Roman army was Publius 
Cornelius Scipio, or *'Scipio Africanus," as he soon 
came to be called, from his deeds in Africa. He was 
an able general, and had just brought the war in Spain 
to an end; where, as he reported to the Senate, he 
"had fought with four generals and four victorious 
armies, and had not left a single Carthaginian soldier 
in the peninsula." Now he was to do" something 
greater still, something that no Roman had ever yet 
done, — that is, to defeat Hannibal in an open battle. 

This battle took place near a little town called Zama, 
which was about two hundred miles inland from Car- 
thage. Scipio had more troops than Hannibal, but 



THE WAR WITH HANNIBAL. 



145 



Hannibal had about eighty elephants, and he hoped to 
win the battle with these. The Romans, however, were 
now thoroughly used to fighting against elephants; 
they opened great lanes in their ranks, and let them 
pass harmlessly through, while the soldiers hurled 
spears and other weapons at them to drive them along 
or turn them back. Then 
the Roman foot -soldiers 
charged the Carthaginians, 
shouting their war-cry and 
clashing their swords 
against their shields. Af- 
ter a hard fight the sol- 
diers of Hannibal were 
overcome, and the general 
alone with a few of his 
horsemen succeeded in es- 
caping. 

Then Hannibal at once 
advised the Carthaginian 
Senate to make peace. 
But the terms of this were 
much harder than they 
had been at the close of 
the first w^ar. Carthage 
had to give up all of her 
possessions outside of Africa, and surrender her ele- 
phants and all of her warships but ten. She had also 
to pay an indemnity of about twelve million dollars to 
Rome, and to agree never to make war on any one 
without the consent of the Roman Senate. In this way, 
Carthage ceased to be the head of a great empire, 




SCIPIO AFRICANUS. 



146 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

and became merely the ruler of a little strip of ter- 
ritory along the coast of Africa. 

After the treaty was signed, Hannibal remained at 
Carthage, and tried faithfully to help his country in 
peace as he had helped her in war. But the Romans 
feared him still and distrusted him; so before many 
years had passed, he was forced to fly from the city to 
avoid being put to death by their orders. After that, 
he wandered about from kingdom to kingdom, on the 
eastern shores of the Mediterranean; but wherever he 
went, Roman messengers followed, and would not let 
him rest in peace. At last, after thirteen years of 
wandering, he was forced to take his own life to avoid 
falling into the hands of his unforgiving enemies. 



ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD. 147 



XX 

Rome Conquers the World, 

THE victory which Rome had won ov^er Hannibal 
meant something more to the Romans than sav- 
ing their country from the Carthaginians. It meant 
the spread of Roman rule from Italy and Sicily over 
into Africa, Spain, and Greece, and even into Asia. 
For the Carthaginians were the only people of that 
day who were strong enough to resist the Romans for 
any length of time. When they were defeated, at last, 
there was no other nation in the world that could 
oppose the power of Rome successfully. 

But the growth of Roman territory did not result 
entirely from the destruction of Carthage. The Romans 
were now the only people that knew how to rule well, 
and could put down pirates and robbers, and make the 
world safe for men to live in. Whenever trouble arose 
in any country, they would interfere; then it would 
not be long before the old government would cease, 
and the Romans would be ruling there as in their own 
land. Before sixty years had passed from the close 
of the second war with Carthage, Rome had, in this 
way, obtained control of almost all the lands that 
border upon the Mediterranean Sea; and she had 
gained this great power without any one planning it 
beforehand, or intending to bring it about. 

The Romans took possession of these various coun- 



148 



THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 



tries in the following order. They received Sicily, 
you will remember, after the first war with Carthage. 
During the second war, while Hannibal was in Italy, 
they conquered Spain; and they kept it for themselves 
after this war was over. Then they felt the need of 




THIRD CENTURY 
100 >00 300 400 SOO 



conquering northern Italy and southern Gaul, so that 
their armies could march from Rome to Spain without 
being attacked by enemies on the way. This land 
also was added to the Roman territory, and almost all 
the western part of the Mediterranean world was thus 
united under their rule. 



ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD, 149 

It was not long before the Romans reached out into 
the eastern Mediterranean also. Just north of Greece 
was a country called Macedonia, whose king had sent 
soldiers to Hannibal, at the battle of Zama, to aid him 
against the Romans. To punish him for this, the 
Romans made war upon him, and defeated him; and, 
when his son Perseus took up arms after his father's 
death, they conquered him also. Then the Romans 
began to rule over Macedonia, and over Greece as 
well, for the Greeks had long been governed by the 
Macedonians, and were now no longer able to rule 
themselves. After this they even went across to Asia 
Minor and made war on a great king there, who was 
interfering with affairs in Europe, and moreover, giv- 
ing shelter to Hannibal, after they had caused him to 
be driven from Carthage. In this war, the Romans 
were easily victorious; and then all of Asia that lay 
along the Mediterranean came under their influence, 
in addition to their European possessions. 

By this time, the Roman name had become a great 
and dreaded one among all the surrounding nations. 
Whenever the ruler of a country was threatened by an 
enemy, and was too weak to meet him alone, his first 
thought was to call upon the Romans for help. In 
this way the ruler of Egypt begged the aid of Rome, 
when a neighboring king made war upon his country. 
The Senate sent an ambassador to this king, and when 
they met the Roman drew a circle with his staff on 
the ground about the king, saying: 

"Before you step out of the circle which I have 
drawn, answer this question, O King. Which will you 
do, give up your war upon Egypt and have Rome for 



150 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

your friend; or continue it and have Rome for your 
enemy?" 

It did not take the king long to decide that it was 
best to give up the v/ar. After that the Romans had 
much influence in Egypt, because they had saved the 
country from its enemies; and in the course of time, it 
too was joined to the Roman lands. 

In the meantime, Carthage had been slowly recover- 
ing from her last war with Rome. Once more, her 
streets were filled with citizens and her harbors with 
ships; and the city was growing strong and wealthy as 
before. But now a stern old Roman named Cato visited 
Carthage, and, seeing that the city was recovering its 
prosperity, he feared that it might again become able 
to fight with Rome on equal terms. When he returned 
to Italy he bore away with him a bunch of fine figs, 
plucked in the gardens of Carthage. Upon reaching 
Rome, he spoke long and earnestly in the Senate of 
the danger which the Carthaginians might yet be able 
to bring upon the city, and then he showed to the sen- 
ators the fresh figs which he had brought back with 
him. 

"The country where these grew is but three days' 
sail from Rome," he said. "Carthage should be 
destroyed." 

Afterwards this was the constant burden of his talk. 
He never ended a speech, upon whatever subject, with- 
out adding, "And, moreover, I think that Carthage 
should be destroyed." 

At last Cato persuaded the Romans to make war 
upon Carthage a third time. In spite of the brave 
defense of the city by the Carthaginians, when even 



ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD. 151 

the women and children joined in the fight, the 
Romans were victorious once more. This time the 
city was utterly destroyed, and the ground upon which 
the buildings had stood was ploughed over and sowed 
with salt, so that it might never more be used by men, 
or even covered by growing things again. Then Rome 
began to rule the land about Carthage, and so gained 
control of most of the northern coast of Africa. 

The city of Rome now held sway over more of the 
world than any nation before that time, and besides 
ruling this great stretch of country, her citizens made 
it their own in another way. In whatever region the 
Romans went, they made their aqueducts, built bridges, 
and raised public buildings, as they had been doing 
for so long in Italy itself. Above all, they built 
good roads to all the lands that came under their rule, 
so that they might send armies swiftly from one coun- 
try to another whenever there was need. Along these 
roads they placed milestones, in order that travelers 
might know at any time just what their distance was 
from Rome; and where the towns were far apart, 
stations were built by the way at which they might 
rest and hire fresh horses to carry them on their jour- 
ney to the next stopping-place. So, traveling by land 
became much easier than it had ever been before, and 
distant countries seemed to be drawn closer together, 
just as they have been in our own day by the construc- 
tion of railroads and the stringing of telegraph wires. 

But Rome could not go out over the world and build 
and rule in all the Mediterranean countries, without 
this making a great difference in the Romans them- 
selves. Their great men were no longer like Cincin- 



152 THE CITY OF THE SE YEN HILLS. 

natus, who left the plough to fight for his country and 
then went back again when the danger was past. The 
Roman generals were now very rich men, and they 
spent all their time in war or in the public business of 
their country. Moreover, instead of refusing the gifts 
of kings, as Fabricius had refused the gold of Pyrrhus, 
it was said that the Roman generals asked for money 
wherever they went about the world. 

The common soldiers, too, were not so good as they 
had been in the old days. Then each man fought in 
the army without pay, and supported himself and his 
family in time of peace by means of his little farm. 
But now many men began to make a business of fight- 
ing, and to serve in the army for a living. As these 
men did not fight solely for the love of their country, 
but rather for the money that they got by it, they began 
to grumble when they were commanded to do things 
that they did not fancy, and sometimes they would 
refuse outright to obey their orders. 

With such generals and such soldiers, it is not sur- 
prising that the Romans were now sometimes shame- 
fully defeated in battle. When they were carrying on 
the war in Macedonia with King Perseus, the first 
armies that were sent against him were beaten for just 
this reason. Then the Romans saw that there must 
be some change made, and they chose a general of the 
old-fashioned sort to take the command. His name 
was iEmilius Paulus, and he was a poor man still, 
although he could easily have been rich if he had been 
willing to do as other men were doing. He had been 
one of the generals in Spain, and also in the north of 
Italy, and in both places he had shown that he knew 



ROJVIE CONQUERS THE WORLD, 153 

how to manage his armies and to gain victories. So 
the people agreed that he was the man to send against 
King Perseus, and, rather against his wishes, they 
elected him consul, and voted to give him command 
of the arm}^ 

yEmilius did not thank the people after they had 
chosen him consul, as was usually done. He spoke 
coFdly to them instead. 

"I suppose, O Romans, that you have chosen me to 
lead in this war because you think that I can com- 
mand better than anybody else. 1 shall expect, there- 
fore, that you will obey my orders, and not give me 
orders yourselves;^ for if- you propose to command your 
own commander, you will only make my defeat worse 
than the former ones.'* 

When ^milius came to the army in Greece, he saw 
that the first thing to do was to teach the soldiers to 
obey orders. He kept them in camp and drilled them 
for many days; and when they murmured and wanted 
to be led out to battle, he only replied: 

"Soldiers! you should not meddle with what does 
not concern you. It is your business only to see that 
you and your arms are ready when the order comes, 
and that, when your commander gives the word, you 
use your swords as Romans should." 

In this way, ^milius trained his arm}^; and when 
the battle was fought, the Romans won a great victory. 
King Perseus and his children and all his treasures 
were captured, and his country was brought under the 
Roman rule. But ^imilius would not so much as go 
to see the heaps of gold and silver which had been 
taken from the king's palaces. Instead of making 



154 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

himself and his friends rich from it, he commanded 
that it should all be sent to Rome and placed in the 
public treasury; and the amount of it was so great that 
never after that did Rome have need to raise a war tax 
from her own people. 

The common soldiers, however, were angry at this 
action of ^milius, for they wanted to divide the spoil 
among themselves. Moreover, they disliked him 
because he ruled them so strictly; so, when the army 
had returned to Rome, and it was proposed that ^Emi- 
lius should be allowed a triumph, the soldiers 
opposed the motion before the people. But an old 
general who had commanded in many wars arose, and 
answered them. 

"It is now clearer than ever to my mind," he said, 
"how great a commander our ^Emilius is; for I see 
that he was able to do such great deeds with an army 
full of baseness and grumbling." 

At this, the soldiers were so ashamed that they let 
the people vole the triumph for ^milius. When the 
time for the celebration came, seats were set up in the 
Forum and in all parts of the city where the show 
could best be seen. On these the Roman people took 
their places, dressed in white garments and ready for 
the great holiday. The temples were all open and 
filled with flowers and garlands, and the main streets 
were cleared, and kept open by officers who drove back 
all who crowded into them. Then came the great pro- 
cession, which delighted the people for three days. 

On the first day, two hundred and fifty chariots 
passed, filled with pictures and statues which had been 
taken from the Greeks. Upon the next day, the rich 



ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD. 



155 



armor which had been captured was shown ; and it made 
a fine sight, with the light glancing from the polished 
helmets and shields, and with the swords and spears 




TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. 



rattling about among the armor. After these wagons 
marched three thousand men, each bearing a basin 
full of silver coin; and following them came others, 



156 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

displaying the silver bowls, goblets, and cups which 
had been taken. 

But the third day furnished the finest sight of all. 
First, early in the morning, the trumpeters marched 
along sounding such notes as the Romans used to 
encourage their soldiers in battle. Then came young 
men wearing robes with ornamented borders, and lead- 
ing one hundred and twenty fat oxen, all with their horns 
gilded, and with ribbons and garlands of flowers tied 
about their heads. These were for the sacrifices to the 
gods, which were to be offered at the temples on the 
Capitol; and with them were boys bearing basins of 
gold and silver to be used by the priests in the offer- 
ings. 

After the cattle for the sacrifices walked seventy- 
seven men, each carrying a basin filled with gold coin; 
and with them marched those who bore the golden 
goblets and dishes which King Perseus had used at his 
table. The chariot of the king came next with his 
armor in it, and his crown lying on top of that; and 
the king's little children, two boys and^a girl, followed 
with their attendants and teachers. As they passed 
along, the servants wept and stretched out their hands, 
begging the Romans to show mercy to the little prin- 
ces; and even among those stern conquerors, many 
hearts were touched at the sight of the unfortunate 
children. 

Then, at a little distance, came King Perseus him- 
self, clothed all in black, and walking quite alone, so 
that all the people might have a good view of him. 
After the king and his attendants had gone past, 
iEmilius appeared, dressed in a robe of purple 



ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD. 157 

mixed with gold, and riding in a splendid chariot, 
holding in his right hand a laurel branch. Following 
the chariot marched all the army, also bearing laurel 
branches and singing songs of victory, — just as 
though they had been the most obedient soldiers in 
the world. And so the triumph ended. 

Many years before, you will remember, the Roman 
people had crowded the Forum to see Marcus Curtius 
leap into the chasm and sacrifice himself for the good 
of his country. What a different sight they had now 
come to watch — their great army returning home in 
triumph, burdened with the wealth of a conquered 
people, and a king and his little children walking 
into cruel captivity before the chariot of their gen- 
eral! The power of Rome had indeed grown enor- 
mously in the meantime, but you can decide for 
yourself which of the two sights would be likely to 
have the noblest influence upon the spectators, — the 
triumph or the sacrifice. 



158 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 



XXI 

The Gracchi and Their Mother. 

AFTER having watched the splendid triumph of 
^milius, let us see one of the more common 
sights of the city, — a Roman wedding. You will find 
it oddly different from the weddings you may have 
seen among our own people, but however strange these 
old customs seem to be, you must remember that they 
were very sacred to the Romans. 

The most important part of the wedding ceremony 
took place at the house of the bridegroom. First, at 
her own home, the bride was dressed in a garment 
made all of one piece of cloth, without any seams, and 
fastened about the waist with a woolen belt or girdle. 
Her hair was parted, not with a comb, but with the 
point of a spear, and arranged in'six little curls; after 
which a yellow net or veil was thrown over her head. 
Then in the evening, a procession was formed by the 
friends of both families, and the bride was taken from 
her father's house to that of her husband. Along the 
way minstrels played on their harps, and bridal songs 
were sung, while a little boy marched on before, 
carrying a blazing torch made from the wood of the 
white-thorn tree. 

When the procession came to the door of the bride- 
groom, the bride wrapped the doorposts with sacred 
fillets of white wool, and smeared them with oil or fat; 



THE GRACCHI AND THEIR MOTHER, 159 

after which she was carefully lifted over the doorsill by 
her husband. The Romans themselves did not under- 
stand the latter custom. Some thought that it was done 
so that the bride might not stumble upon entering her 
husband's house for the first time, as that would have 
been a very bad sign. Others said that it was repeated 
in memory of the time when the followers of Romulus 
took wives from the Sabine women by force. 

After the'procession had entered the house, the bride 
turned and said to her husband: 

"Where thou art, Caius, there will I, Caia, be also.'' 

Next the husband presented her with fire and water, 
to show that she was now a member of his family, and 
could sit at his hearth and join in the worship of his 
household gods. The ceremony was then ended by a 
feast, with a wedding cake and abundance of nuts. 

This is the manner in which Cornelia, the daughter 
of Scipio Africanus, was married to Tiberius Gracchus. 
He was a fine soldier and a just and honorable man; 
and she was then a beautiful girl, who had all the 
noblest qualities of the great family to which she 
belonged. For years afterwards they lived happily 
together, and had many children. Then, according 
to the story, Tiberius found in their sleeping-room 
one day a pair of large snakes. The Romans regarded 
reptiles as sacred, so he went to the priests and 
asked what he should do with the creatures. They 
answered that he must kill one and let the other go; 
and they added, that if he killed the female snake, 
Cornelia would die, and that if he killed the male, 
he himself would shortly perish. Tiberius loved 
his wife deeply, so, when he was told this, he went 



160 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

home and killed the male snake, and let the female 
escape. 

Shortly afterwards Tiberius died, and then his 
widow, Cornelia, lived only for her children. Even 
when the king of Egypt sent to her and wished her to 
become his queen, she would not consent. Only three 
of her children — two boys and a girl — lived to reach 
manhood and womanhood; and on these Cornelia 
centered all of her love and care. She lived with 
them, and played with them, and taught them their 
letters; and, as she was a noble, high-minded woman, 
her children grew to be like her, brave, honorable, 
and unselfish. 

One day, as Cornelia was sitting at home with the 
children playing near at hand, a lady came to visit 
her. As they talked the visitor showed her the splen- 
did rings and precious stones which she wore, and at 
last asked to see her own jewels. 

Then Cornelia called her little children, and led 
them proudly before her guest. 

"These are my jewels," she said. 

As her boys grew up to be men, Cornelia would 
sometimes reproach them that she was still known as 
the relative of the Scipios, and not as the mother of 
the Gracchi. In this way she made them long to do 
great deeds^ so as to bring her honor; and when the 
elder of the two boys, Tiberius, carne to enter the 
army, he went at his work with so much earnestness 
that in a short time he excelled all the other young 
men in skill at arms. While the Romans were mak- 
ing war on Carthage for the third time, Tiberius 
Gracchus was the first man to climb up on the wall of 



THE GRACCHI AND THEIR MOTHER, 161 

the city; and when he was in Spain, fighting with the 
mountain tribes, he saved the whole army from being 
destroyed as a result of the faults and mistakes of its 
commander. 

But it is not for what he did as a soldier that Tiberius 
Gracchus has been remembered. It is rather for what 
he undertook after he returned to Rome and became a 
tribune of the people. In spite of all the wealth and 
power that now came to Rome from her conquered 
countries, the condition of the common people had 
become serious, and they needed the aid of a wise 
tribune more even than in former days. During the 
terrible war with Hannibal, the small farmers had 
their property ruined, and fled to the city. After 
the war was over, the land gradually passed into 
the hands of the senators and rich men of Rome, and 
a few great farms took the place of many small ones. 
The worst of it was that these large farms were not 
tilled by free laborers, but by slaves, — captives taken 
in war, for the most part. So the poor freeman not 
only lost his land, but he lost the chance to work for 
hire also. The only thing he could do after that was 
either to enlist in the army and earn his living as a 
soldier, or else remain idly at Rome and demand 
that the state should provide for him. The rich can- 
didates for offices were so eager to get the aid of the 
poorer citizens that they gladly bought their votes by 
feeding them, and amusing them with games and 
various spectacles. But, in this way, both the rich 
and the poor became selfish and greedy, and thought 
only of what would help themselves, instead of what 
would be best for the whole people. 



162 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

Tiberius Gracchus saw these evils, and when he 
became tribune, he tried to cure them. Much of the 
land which the rich men held really belonged to the 
state, though it had been in the hands of private citi- 
zens for so many years that the people who held it had 
begun to forget that they did not really own it. What 
Gracchus proposed to do was to divide this land 
among the poor citizens, and build up once more a 
strong class of small landholders, such as had been 
the strength of Rome in earlier times. 

Of course, the men who already had the land did 
not favor this plan; so, when Gracchus brought for- 
ward his law for the people to vote on it, they got 
another tribune, named Octavius, to veto it, and that 
stopped the voting. Then, when Gracchus found that 
Octavius would not withdraw his veto, he had the 
people put him out of his office and elect a new tri- 
bune in his place. This was against the law, but 
Gracchus could see no other way of carrying his 
measure through. 

After this, the law which Gracchus had proposed 
was passed, and he and two other men were appointed 
to make the distribution of the lands. Before the 
work was done, however, Gracchus' s year of office was 
over; and he was afraid that, as soon as he should be 
out of office, the rich citizens would not only find some 
way to interfere with the law, but that they would also 
punish him for his treatment of Octavius. At this 
time no one had ever been allowed to be tribune two 
years in succession; but Tiberius decided to disobey 
the laws once more, and have himself elected tribune a 
second time. 



THE GRACCHI AND THEIR MOTHER. 163 

When the senators and rich citizens heard this, they 
were very angry, and determined to prevent it. Upon 
the day of the election Gracchus was accused of trying 
to make himself king and a riot broke out. Then the 
senators and rich men armed themselves with clubs 
and bits of benches and stools, and set upon the poorer 
citizens; and Tiberius Gracchus and three hundred of 
his followers were slain. 

Gracchus had been wrong in putting Octavius out of 
ofifice, and in trying to get himself elected tribune a 
second time against the laws. But how much worse 
was the action of the senators and wealthy citizens! In 
the old days, when the patricians and the plebeians 
struggled together, they did so peaceably and with 
respect for the laws. Now, in these new strifes 
between the party of the poor and the party of the 
rich, force was used for the first time, and men were 
killed in a political struggle at Rome. And for this 
the senators and rich men were chiefly to blame. 

The younger of the Gracchi, Gains, was not at Rome 
when Tiberius was killed. He was still a very young 
man, just beginning his training as a soldier, and for 
ten years longer he went on serving with the armies of 
Rome. Then, although the Senate tried unlawfully to 
keep him from returning to the city, he came back, 
and he too was elected tribune. 

Caius was much more rash than his brother had 
been. In spite of all that his mother^ Cornelia could 
do to prevent it, he resolved to carry out the plans of 
his brother Tiberius, and even to go further. He 
wanted to overturn the government by the Senate and 
the nobles, and put in its place a government by the 



164 THE CITY. OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

people, with himself at their head. He got the sup- 
port of the people for this by passing a law that they 
should always have grain sold to them at a low price. 
Then he gained the support of many of the wealthy 
citizens, by passing laws which took rights and priv-i- 
leges from the senators, and gave them to the rich 
men who were not senators. 

So Caius Gracchus obtained more power than his 
brother had possessed; and a law having now been 
passed which permitted one to be re-elected as tri- 
bune, he was allowed to serve a second time. After 
this, he was able to pass many laws to help the poorer 
citizens. • But when he wished to do still more, and 
aid the Italians who were not citizens of Rome, his 
followers selfishly deserted him. They were afraid 
that they would have to share their cheap grain and 
their free games with the Italians, so this law was not 
passed; and, at the next election, Caius Gracchus was 
not made tribune again. 

Then Gracchus tried to live quietly, as a private 
citizen, at Rome. But now that he was no longer 
tribune, the nobles soon found ways in which to 
quarrel with him; and when a riot again broke out, 
Caius and many of his friends were put to death by the 
senators, as Tiberius Gracchus had been before them. 

You would think that, after the death of her second 
son, poor Cornelia would have been heart-broken and 
would almost have hated her country, for the ingrati- 
tude with which its people had treated her children. 
But the Romans believed that you ought not to 
show sorrow at anything that happened to you, no 
matter how dreadful it might be. So Cornelia put on 



THE GRACCHI AND THEIR MOTHER. 165 

a brave face, hiding the suffering that was in her 
heart; and when she spoke of the deeds and deaths of 
her sons, it was without a sigh or a tear, as if she were 
talking about some of the ancient heroes who had died 
ages before. Every one admired her for her courage 
and virtue; and in time the Roman people repented of 
their conduct towards her sons, and began to look upon 
them as the truest friends they had ever had. When 
Cornelia died, a statue was set up in her honor, and 
underneath it were carved these words, as her best title 
to remembrance: 

^'Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi.*' 



166 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 



XXII 

The Wars of Caius Marius. 

CAIUS MARIUS was a poor country lad who 
entered the army as a common soldier, and, 
without the help of money or of a powerful family 
rose to the highest position. It is said that when he 
was a boy, he one day caught in his cloak an eagle's 
nest, with seven young ones in it, as it was falling 
from a high tree. From this the wise men foretold 
that he should be seven times consul; and Marius 
never rested until this saying had come true. 

He gained his first knowledge of war in Spain under 
Scipio ^milianus. This Scipio was the son of ^milius 
Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia, and an adopted 
son in the family of the great Scipio Africanus. As he 
was also an able and honorable man, he was thus a 
very good master under whom to learn the art of war; 
and Caius Marius profited well by the lessons which 
he learned in his camp. When the commander was 
asked one day where the Romans would ever find 
as good a general as himself when he was gone, he 
turned and touched the shoulder of young Marius, who 
stood near. 

''Here, perhaps," he replied. 

This encouraged Marius, and he struggled on for 
many years, gradually rising in the army and in the 



THE WARS OF CAIUS MARIUS. 167 

state from one position to another. At last he even 
succeeded in having himself elected consul, and so 
received the command of an army himself. 

His opportunity came in this way. A king named 
Jugurtha arose in a little kingdom near Carthage, gain- 
ing his power in a most unjust manner, and then using 
it in a way that was even worse. At last the Roman 
Senate was forced to declare war upon him. It proved 
that he was not to be easily conquered, and the Roman 
generals who were sent against him did not seem to be 
able to bring the trouble to an end. Finally Marius, 
who was with one of the generals as second in com- 
mand, became very impatient over this delay in crush- 
ing Jugurtha, and resolved to go to Rome and try to 
get the command for himself. 

Marius was very well liked .by the common soldiers 
because he had been one of themselves, and still ate 
the same coarse food and slept upon the same beds 
that they did, often helping them with his own hands 
in digging ditches and throwing up earthworks. But 
the general of the army scorned him because of his low 
birth; and when Marius applied to him for permission 
to go to Rome to become a candidate for consul, he 
laughed at him. 

"It will be time enough for you to become candidate 
for consul when my young son does," he said. 

Marius left the army deeply angered, and when he 
came to Rome he showed that he had more influence 
than had been suspected. He told the people how 
slowly the war was going on and how much better he 
could manage it himself. As he belonged to their own 
class, the common people believed him and elected him 



168 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

consul, giving him by a special vote the command of 
the army against Jugurtha. 

When Marius returned to Africa, he found that it was 
more difficult to bring the war to an end than he had 
expected. But at last Jugurtha was betrayed to him 
by one of his own household, and then Marius ended 
the war and brought the king captive to Rome. No 
sooner was this war over than another one broke 
out which threatened the Romans with such a terrible 
danger that they elected Marius consul a second time 
to meet this new enemy; and then a third and a fourth 
time. At last he had been consul for five terms before 
the danger was past, and it seemed as though the old 
prophecy concerning him might yet be fulfilled. 

This new war was with a people who came from the 
region north of the Alps and overran Gaul, threatening 
to pass into Italy. Although they were called by 
several names, they were probably Germans, and 
belonged to the same family of nations from which the 
Germans of to-day, the English, and most of the 
Americans are descended. Large and strong of body, 
and as hardy as they were strong, they terrified the 
Romans more even than the Gauls had done two hun- 
dred and eighty years before. Like the. Gauls, they 
came in great numbers, carrying their wives and chil- 
dren and all their possessions with them in rude, cov- 
ered wagons, and went wandering about looking for a 
new home in which to settle. 

The Romans first met these newcomers in that part 
of Gaul which had come under Roman rule. There, 
four great armies of the Romans were destroyed one 
after the other. Then it was that Marius was elected 



THE WARS OF CAIUS MARIUS. . 169 

consul a second time, and sent into Gaul to keep these 
Germans from crossing the Alps and reaching Italy. 
Fortunately for the Romans, the barbarians turned 
aside into Spain after their last great victory, and 
remained in that country for two or three years. Thus 
Marius had time to get together a new army, and to 
drill his men thoroughly. When the barbarians came 
back from Spain, they separated, — one band of them 
starting north around the Alps in order to enter Italy 
from the east, while the others remained in Gaul, and 
tried to reach the peninsula from the western side. 

Even after so large a part of the Germans had left 
Gaul, Marius did not dare to lead his men out of camp 
against those that remained. For six days he let them 
march continuously past his camp; and as they went by 
they shouted taunts to the Romans and asked whether 
they had any messages to send to their wives. But 
when the last of this band, too, had disappeared, 
Marius led his army out, and followed them. He 
came up with them just before they reached the Alps, 
and by this time he had his soldiers so well trained 
that he decided to risk a battle. The result was a 
great victory for the Romans; for the barbarians were 
entirely destroyed, and their kings were made captives. 

Then Marius hurried on into Italy and marched to 
the aid of the other consul, who had been sent to meet 
the band that was seeking to enter the peninsula from 
the east. This consul was not so good a general as 
Marius, and the barbarians succeeded in getting into the 
country on that side. When Marius arrived, they sent 
to him and demanded lands in Italy on which they and 
their brethren, whom they had left in Gaul, might settle. 



ITO THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

In reply, Marius showed them the captives who had 
been brought with him and the Germans were filled 
with grief and anger, for they knew that their 
brethren had been destroyed. Though they might 
well have feared the same fate for themselves, the 
chiefs of their army challenged Marius to fix the time 
and place for a battle. He chose the third day after 
that and a broad plain near by for the place. When 
the battle came, the Germans fought with great brav- 
ery, and their women, standing in the wagons, encour- 
aged their husbands and brothers with fierce cries; but 
at last the Romans were victorious and this band of the 
barbarians was also destroyed. 

After this Marius returned to Rome, where he was 
received with great honor and rejoicing. Men called 
him the third founder of the city; for they said, that 
just as Camillus had saved Rome from the Gauls, so 
Marius had saved it from these new invaders. As a 
reward for his victories he was soon after elected con- 
sul for the sixth time. 

If Marius had been a statesman as well as a soldier, 
he might now have used his power to remedy the evils 
which the Gracchi had tried to cure, and so have saved 
the state. But though Marius could win battles, he 
could not govern in time of peace. Long after this 
men said of him that '*he never cared to be a good 
man, so he was a great one"; and perhaps that is the 
reason he failed as a ruler. He hesitated to take 
either the side of the common people, or that of the 
nobles, for he wished only to do the thing that would 
benefit himself. In this way Marius lost the influence 
which he had gained by his victories; and for twelve 



THE WARS OF CAWS MARIUS, 



171 



years the conqueror of the Germans was despised and 
neglected by everyone. 

At last civil war began between the party of the com- 
mon people and the party of the nobles. The latter 
had a famous soldier named Sulla as commander of their 
army; and the leaders of the common people chose 
Marius, although he was then nearly seventy years old, 
to be their general. Marius had long been jealous of 
Sulla, and besides he was eager to gain the seventh 
consulship that had been promised 
him, so he accepted the command. 
But at first the nobles got the better 
of the party of Marius; and when 
Sulla marched on Rome, the city 
was taken* by his army. This was 
the first capture of Rome by a body 
of its own citizens, but it was not to 
be the last. 

When Rome was taken by Sulla, 
Marius escaped with much difficulty, 
and for many days wandered about 
Italy with only a few companions. 
Atone time they barely escaped a.party of horsemen on 
the shore by swimming out to some ships which were 
sailing by. At another they lay hid in a marsh with 
the mud and water up to their necks. Once Marius 
was taken prisoner, and the officers of the town where he 
was held sent a Gaulish slave to kill him in his dungeon; 
but Marius's eyes gleamed so fiercely in the darkness 
as he called out in a loud voice, "Fellow, darest thou 
kill Caius Marius?" that the slave dropped his sword 
and fled. Then the officers of the town faltered in 




172 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

their, purpose and at last allowed Marius to go free. 
He escaped to the neighborhood of Carthage, but 
even there he was not safe, for the Roman governor of 
that district sent a message warning him to leave. 
When the command was given to him, Marius replied, 
'*Go, tell the governor that you have seen Caius Marius 
sitting in exile among the ruins of Carthage." 

At last Sulla was obliged to leave Italy and go to 
Asia Minor to make war on a powerful king in that 
region. Then the friends of Marius got control of 
Rome once more; and Marius could safely return. 
When he came back his heart was filled with rage 
against his enemies, and he caused thousands of them 
to be put to death without trial or hearing. Even his 
friends came to fear this gloomy and revengeful man. 
He grained his seventh consulship at this time, but he 
did not live long to enjoy it. His many years of war 
and bloodshed had left him a strange old man, full of 
bitterness and unrest. Finally he died, on the seven- 
teenth day of his seventh consulship; and the whole 
people breathed freer when he was gone. 

Soon afterwards Sulla returned from the east, and 
when he had regained his power he took a terrible 
revenge on all the friends of Marius. Many persons 
were put to death simply because some one of Sulla's 
friends desired their property. The Italian cities 
which had rebelled against Rome in this time of 
trouble were punished with great severity, and so ter- 
ribly was Italy wasted that it seemed as if Hannibal 
had come again. 



CICERO, THE ORATOR. 173 



XXIII 

Cicero, the Orator. 

AT the close of the war with Jugurtha a child was 
born in Marius's old home near Rome, who was 
to become as famous as Marius himself, but in a better 
and nobler way. Marcus Tullius Cicero was to be a 
great orator and writer, and rule the state by his elo- 
quence as others governed it by force of arms. This 
would have been impossible in the earlier city, when 
the consuls had to be generals first of all, and the edu- 
cation of the citizens consisted mainly in training for 
battle. In these later times, however, the people 
•studied something besides the use of arms and the 
laws of their city; and Cicero, who 'was a scholar 
instead of a soldier, was chosen to govern them as 
consul. 

It is very interesting to compare the education of a 
Roman like Cicero with that which is given almost 
every boy and girl of our own day. Cicero's parents 
lived outside of Rome, and he was sent from his coun- 
try home to his uncle in the city at the age of six, in 
order to enter school there. Before this his training 
had been mostly in charge of his mother, except when 
he stood at the family altar watching his father's sacri- 
fices to the gods; or, perhaps, when he learned to 
speak Greek even so early, by listening to the talk of 
some slave brought from that country as a captive. 



174 



THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 



From his infancy he had been told the stories of the 
Roman heroes, and of his own ancestors, and taught by 
means of them to be modest, brave, and obedient. 
But this was only for family instruction; the school at 
Rome, to which he was sent so young, dealt with the 
usual general subjects. 

In the city the schools then began at sunrise, and 






ROMAN BOOKS AND WRITING MATERIALS. 
In two of the pictures purses and heaps~of coins are also shown, 

the children had to be up and ready to start before 
daybreak. They carried lanterns to light their way, 
and slaves went with them to and fro so that no harm 
might befall them. In the schoolroom, the master 
sat on a raised platform at one end of the room, 
with the children on stools and benches in front of 



CICERO, THE OR A TOR, 175 

him. Around the walls there were lyres, or harps, 
to be used in the music lessons, and also pictures of 
the gods or of scenes from the history of Rome. On 
one of the walls a board was hung on which were writ- 
ten the names of all absent or truant pupils. Above 
the master's bench there was a great stick, and the lazy 
boys had good reason to fear it when they did not 
know their lessons. 

In this lowest school, the children learned to read 
and to write. Instead of slates or sheets of paper, they 
had wooden tablets covered with wax; and on these 
they wrote with a sharp-pointed instrument called a 
stylus. The other end of the stylus was blunt, so that 
when a pupil made a mistake in his writing, he could 
smooth it out in the soft wax with this end, and then 
try again. Here the children also learned arithmetic. 
Perhaps the arithmetic which you have to study is 
difficult for you; but think how much harder it must 
have been for the Roman boys. They did not have 
the plain and easy figures which you use, but only 
what we still call the ''Roman numerals." If you 
want to see how much more difficult it is to use these, 
try to find the answer to 

XXIV times LXXXVII, 

and then see how much easier it is when it is written 

24 times 87. 

Because their arithmetic was so hard, each Roman 
boy carried with him to school a counting-frame to 
help him. This was a wooden contrivance divided into 
lines and columns, and he worked his problems with it 
by putting little pebbles in the different columns to 
represent the different denominations. 



176 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

After Cicero had gone through this school, he 
entered what was called a grammar school. There he 
studied Greek grammar, and read some of the famous 
books of that day, both Greek and Latin. Of course 
these were not printed books, as printing was not 
invented for fifteen hundred years after this. Those 
which he studied were all written with a pen, on 
smooth white skins called parchment, or on paper 
made from the papyrus plant which grows in Egypt. 
Instead of being bound as our books are, the pages of 
these were all pasted into one long strip, and then 
rolled tightly around a stick. 

In such a school young Cicero studied until he was 
fifteen years old. Up to that time he had worn the 
**boyish toga," with its narrow purple border, and 
carried a ''bulla" or charm about his neck to ward off 
the evil eye. After he passed that age, he discarded 
the boyish toga and the bulla, and put on for the first 
time a toga all of white, such as the men wore. This 
was made a day of festival for the family, and the 
young man went with his father and his friends into 
the Forum, where his name was written in the list of 
Roman citizens, and then to the temples on the Cap- 
itol to offer sacrifices to the gods. After this he rnight 
be called upon to serve in war, and he had the right to 
vote and to do everything that the grown men were 
allowed to do. 

All Roman boys of good families followed this 
course of training up to the time when they put on the 
manly toga. After that, if they intended to prepare 
themselves for war, they entered the camp of some 
general and attached thernselves to him; but if they 



CICERO. THE OR A TOR. 177 

intended to train themselves for the law, and become 
speakers, they attended the law courts in the Forum. 
Cicero's father wished him to be fitted for the law, so 
he put the lad in charge of one of the great judges and 
lawyers of that time. In his company and under his 
direction, Cicero attended the law courts day after 
day, and listened to the best speakers, taking notes on 
all that he saw and heard. Thus, in the course of 
time, he learned the laws of his country and the ways 
in which the courts did business; and by constant 
attention and practice, he also came to be an excellent 
speaker. 

After a num.ber of years spent in this way, Cicero at 
last had a chance to show the Roman people what good 
use he had made of his time in the law courts. Dur- 
ing the terrible civil war between Marius and Sulla, a 
young Roman was charged most unjustly with the 
murder of his father; but all the lawyers of Rome were 
afraid to defend him, for it was known that whoever 
did so might anger Sulla, and so bring a sentence of 
death upon himself. Cicero, however, was willing to 
risk the danger. He defended the young man before 
the court, and the cause was so good, and Cicero spoke 
so well and fearlessly in his behalf, that he w^as at 
once released. This gave Cicero some fame at Rome, 
but he did not dare to remain there afterwards for fear 
of the wrath of Sulla. So he went to Greece, where 
he passed his time in studying under Greek masters, 
and learning how to speak and write still better. 

At last news came that Sulla was dead, and Cicero 
returned to Rome. Then he entered politics, and 
proved to be such a good speaker, and so honest, and 



178 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

so learned in the laws, that he was elected to one 
office after another at-the very lowest age that he could 
hold them. Moreover, he received these honors in 
spite of the fact that the nobles looked upon him with 
scorn as a man of lower birth, since no member of his 
family had ever yet been chosen consul. 

Though he now held public offices, Cicero did not 
cease to come before the law courts whenever there 
was need. At one time a man named Verres was 
charged with misgoverning the province of Sicily and 
unlawfully taking large sums of money from them 
while he was ruling the island. This had come to be 
a very common thing. Indeed, people would often 
say that a Roman governor had to make three fortunes 
out of his province during the time that he was in 
office: one to pay off the debts he had made to get the 
office, another to bribe the judges at Rome in case 
they should try to punish him for his dishonesty, and 
a third to live on after he returned to Rome. So, 
although Verres was much worse than governors 
usually were, few people expected to see him pun- 
ished. Cicero took charge of this case, and he 
managed it so skilfully that in spite of all Verres could 
do he was forced to leave Rome and go into exile. 
This won for Cicero the praise of all honest citizens, 
but it is believed that it did not make the Roman gov- 
ernors themselves very much better. 

When Cicero had held all of the offices below that 
of consul, it happened that a plot was made at 
Rome which nearly overturned the government; and 
in this time of danger, Cicero was elected consul. 
The common people and the nobles had once more 



CICERO, THE OR A TOR. 



179 



begun their quarrels, which had been checked dur- 
ing the period of Sulla's stern rule. A ruined noble, 
named Catiline, now put himself forward as the leader 
of the common people, and with their support he tried 
to gain the consulship. But all good men distrusted 
him, because of the crimes which were charged against 
him, and because it was known that he was deeply in 




CICERO. 



debt and ready to do anything to get money. So the 
moderate men among both the common people and the 
nobles united in supporting Cicero for consul against 
Catiline, and Cicero was elected. 

Thereupon Catiline determined to secure by force 
what he could not get by the vote of the people. He 
drew together a number of ruined nobles like himself, 
and planned with them to murder the consuls and 



180 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

seize the city, in order to burn and rob as they 
chose. 

Cicero was informed of these plans; but he did not 
dare to arrest Catiline, for he had powerful friends and 
the consuls did not yet have clear proof of the plot. 
He decided to rouse and startle Catiline so that he 
would show his plans openly, and all the people might 
be convinced of them. Accordingly, Cicero arose in the 
Senate, while Catiline was there, and made a powerful 
speech against him. 

*'How long, O Catiline,'' he cried, **will you abuse 
our patience ? When will this boldness of yours come to 
an end? Do not the guards which are placed each 
night on the Palatine hill alarm you? Do not the 
watchmen posted throughout the city, does not the 
alarm of the people and the union of all good men, do 
not the looks and expressions of the senators here, 
have any effect upon you? Do you not feel that your 
plans are known? What did you do last night or the 
night before that you think is still unknown to us?'* 

Then Cicero went on to tell all the plans of Catiline, 
and showed him that so much was known of them that 
he left the Senate in fright and rage, and rode hastily 
away from the city to join some soldiers that he had 
stationed near by. Everyone was convinced by this 
that what Cicero had claimed was true, and an army 
was sent against the plotter and his troops. They were 
easily overcome and Catiline was slain, while his fol- 
lowers in the city were arrested and put to death. 

For Cicero's wise government of Rome, at this time, 
men of both parties honored him, and he was publicly 
called "the father of his country." But it was not 



CICERO, THE OR A TOR, 181 

long before the influence which he had gained by his 
good services was greatly weakened. 

Rome had grown, as you have seen, from a little 
city-state, to be a great empire; but the form of the 
government was still the same that it had been in the 
old days. This was not as it should have been, for a 
great empire could not be ruled like a single city. It 
was not only unjust, but it was unwise to let a few 
thousand greedy, selfish men choose the officers and 
make the laws that were to rule all the millions of 
people that were governed by Rome. But there 
seemed to be no way to remedy the trouble, for nobody 
had then thought of what we call *' representative gov- 
ernment,'' — that is, one in which the people of each 
city or district elect men to represent them at the cap- 
ital of the country, and make laws for the whole land. 
The Romans knew only two ways of governing a great 
empire: one was to let the people of the chief city 
rule over all the rest, as Rome was doing; the other 
was to give up free government altogether, and allow 
a king to rule the whole according to his will. 

Many people thought that the government by the 
Senate and people of Rome could still continue. 
Cicero was one of these, and he tried to build up a 
party in support of this idea; but it was an impossible 
task. The senators were selfish and shortsighted; 
the rich men were only anxious for more wealth; and 
the common people were ready to support anyone who 
would give them bread to eat, and amuse them with 
races and wild-beast fights. Besides this, there were 
now several powerful men in Rome who realized that 
a change in the government must soon come, and 



182 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

each of whom was trying to make himself master of 
the city. 

So Cicero failed in his attempt. First he was exiled 
from Rome, on a charge of unlawfully punishing 
some of the followers of Catiline. Then, after he had 
been allowed to return to Rome, civil war broke out 



CIRCUS MAXIMUS. 



between the different persons who were trying to get 
the chief power; and the wars continued until at last 
the Republic came to an end, and Julius Csesar, the 
ablest man among the Romans, gathered up all the 
offices of the government in his own hands, and made 
himself sole ruler of the empire. 



CICERO, THE OR A TOR, 183 

In this time of terrible civil war, Cicero could have 
no place, for he was a peaceful man who tried to rule 
men by persuading them, instead of commanding them 
by force. When the old government had been finally 
overthrown, he no longer took an interest in politics. 
After that, he spent his time in study; and the 
books which he wrote then may still be read by those 
who understand the Latin language, — indeed, they 
have done more to make the name of Cicero famous 
than anything else that he ever accomplished. 

But before many years had passed in this way, Caesar 
was slain by some of his enemies, and new struggles 
began for the mastery of the Roman world. Cicero 
now thought that perhaps the government by the Sen- 
ate and people might be renewed, and he spoke and 
wrote in order to bring this about; but his efforts were 
all in vain. The attempt to restore the old govern- 
ment failed, and Cicero lost his own life by it. His 
writings had annoyed and offended some of the great 
men of Rome, and at last they ordered that he should 
be put to death. 

Long after this, one of the men who had given the 
command for Cicero's death found his nephew read- 
ing a book which the boy vainly tried to hide under 
his gown. He took possession of it, and found that it 
was one of Cicero's works. For a long time he stood 
reading, absorbed in the noble thought and language: 
then, as he returned the book, he said, "My child, this 
was a learned man, and one who loved his country 
well.'' 



184 



THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 



XXIV 

Julius Caesar, the Conqueror of Gaul. 




CAIUS JULIUS C^SAR belonged to a noble 
family, but he was a nephew of Marius by mar- 
riage, and it was this perhaps that caused him first to 
act with the party of the people. He was little more 
than a boy when Sulla and Marius were carrying on 



JULIUS C/ESAR, THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL. 185 

their terrible struggles for the mastery, and he had 
taken no part in these troubles. But when Sulla had 
overcome the common people, and was putting to death 
all persons whom he regarded as the enemies of his 
own party, he wished to include young Caesar in the 
number. Some of the general's firmest friends, how- 
ever, and even the Vestal Virgins, went to him and 
begged that Caesar's life might be spared, because of 
his youth and his noble birth. For a long time they 
pleaded in vain, but at last Sulla gave way. 

"Let him live, then, as you wish,'* he said; "but I 
would have you know that there is many a Marius 
in this young man, for whose safety you are so anxious. 
You will find, some day, that he will be the ruin of the 
party of the nobles to which you and I all belong.'' 

After this narrow escape Caesar did not dare to stay 
longer at Rome. He went to the lands about the east- 
ern end of the Mediterranean Sea, and joined the camp 
of a general who was carrying on one of the conflicts 
which the Romans were now constantly waging in that 
region. Here Caesar got his first training in war; and 
one day he showed such bravery in saving the life of a 
fellow soldier, that the commander presented him 
with a crown of oak leaves. This, as you will remem- 
ber from the story of Coriolanus, was a mark of high 
honor among the Romans. 

After Sulla was dead, Caesar returned to Rome; but 
not to remain there long. He decided that he wished 
to be an orator as well as a soldier, so he went to 
Greece, as Cicero had done, to study the art of writing 
and speaking. While he was on his way there he had 
an adventure which shows very well the character of 



186 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

the man even in his youth. The ship that he was on 
was captured by pirates, and Csesar was told by them 
that he must pay a large sum of money before they 
would let him go. He at once sent his servants to 
raise this sum, but in the meantime he had to stay with 
the pirates on their island home. 

These were desperate men, who considered the crime 
of murder a trifling act; but Caesar seemed to have no 
fear of them, and even showed his contempt for them 
quite freely. When he wished to sleep, he would order 
them to be silent while he did so; and in other moods 
he would join in their rough play and exercise. To 
help pass away the time till his servants should return 
he wrote poems and speeches, and recited them to 
these ignorant men. When they did not seem pleased 
with his efforts, he frankly called them "dunces" and 
''barbarians." They accepted all this from Caesar 
with great good-humor, for they liked his fearless 
spirit; and when he threatened to punish them, as soon 
as he was free, for their piracy and crimes, they only 
laughed at him and thought it a great joke. 

After his money had come, however, and he was at 
liberty, the first thing that Caesar did was to carry out 
this threat. He gathered together some ships and men, 
and returned to the island where the pirates stayed. 
Here he found their vessels still at anchor, and in 
the battle which followed, he defeated them and cap- 
tured most of the men, recovering also the money 
which he had paid them as a ransom. 

At Rome, after this, Caesar led the kind of life that 
was usual among all the wealthy young men of the 
time. He joined in the gayety of the city, and seemed to 



JULIUS CAESAR, THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL. 187 

think of nothing but that. He was very careful in his 
dress, and was one of the leaders of the fashion at 
Rome, This seemed foolish to the grave Cicero, and 
he once spoke doubtfully of Caesar, wondering if there 
could really be any earnest purpose in a man who gave 
so much thought to the arrangement of his hair. 

Beneath this lightness of behavior, however, lay 
great powers of mind and character. Caesar had 
already determined to accomplish something great, 
and he never lost sight of this purpose. At the very 
time that Cicero thought him so foolish and careless, 
he was preparing himself to win the favor of the 
people and become their leader. When he began to 
speak in public, he had taken so much pains to train 
himself well, that he pleased his hearers from the first; 
and after his return from Greece, he was looked upon 
as one of the best orators of Rome. He was friendly 
and pleasant to every one, and gave money freely to 
all who begged his help. Of course he became very 
popular, and soon he was elected to several offices, one 
after the other. 

While Caesar held one of these offices, it was his 
duty to oversee the public games. The Romans, as 
you know, had now become very fond of such shows, 
and they were given a number of times each year in 
various forms. Some of them were like the Greek 
games, and were contests in running, wrestling, leap- 
ing, and hurling the spear. Others were sham battles, 
in which little armies of horsemen, infantry, and ele- 
phants took part. But those that the Romans liked 
best were three, — the chariot races, the fights with wild 
beasts, and the contests of gladiators. 



188 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

The chariot races were held in a race course called 
the Great Circus, which lay between the Palatine hill 
and the one which stood south of it. Each chariot was 
usually drawn by four horses, and four chariots took 
part in each race. The drivers of the chariots wore 
different colored gowns, — white, red, blue, and green; 
and the people took such interest in these races, that 
they divided into parties over them. In this way there 
came to be a party of the Greens, who always favored 
the driver who wore that color, and a party of the 
Blues, and so on; while sometimes the people became 
so excited by the races that they actually came to 
blows about them. 

The custom of chariot races was very old, — indeed, 
it was said that Romulus first began them; but the 
wild-beast fights were not introduced until after the 
second war with Carthage. Then the Romans began 
to turn elephants, lions, leopards, and other beasts, 
into the ''arena" of the Circus (as the central part of 
it was called), and set men to hunt them for the 
amusement of the spectators. It is said that four 
hundred lions were once fought and killed there at 
the same time to make sport for the people. 

But the shows which delighted the Romans most 
were the fights of the gladiators. These were men 
who were trained for fighting to amuse the people; and 
they were usually captives who had been taken in 
war, or slaves who had been sold to the trainers of 
gladiators as a punishment. Most often they fought 
together in single pairs. Sometimes they were both 
armed in the same way, with helmet, shield, and 
sword. Sometimes, however, one only would be 



190 



THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 



armed thus, and the other would have nothing but 
a three-pointed spear with which to thrust at his 
enemy, and a net to throw over his head and entangle 
him. When one of the gladiators became wounded, 
the fight stopped until the will of the people had been 
made known. If they held their thumbs up, he was 
spared; but if they turned them downwards,, they 

wished to see no 
mercy shown, and 
the conquered one 
was put to death. 

The government 
was supposed to fur- 
nish the money to 
provide for these 
shows, but it had be- 
come the custom for 
the overseers of the 
games to add to them 
at their own expense. 
When Caesar was 
made overseer he tried to give finer spectacles than had 
ever been seen before, regardless of the cost. Every- 
body said that there had never been more or better 
gladiator fights o-r greater animal hunts than those he 
furnished. The statues and pictures, too, which he 
provided to decorate the Forum and the temples on 
the Capitol during the time of the games, were so 
numerous that places had to be found elsewhere for 
many of them. 

Caesar spent such large sums of his own money on 
these shows that he came out of the office very heavily 




GLADIATOR FIGHT. 



JULIUS CJESAR, THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL. 191 

in debt; but he had succeeded in his purpose. He had 
made the people think him generous and public- 
spirited; so when he became a candidate for the con- 
sulship some time after this, they gladly supported 
him. The nobles, however, did not like Caesar so 
well, and they opposed his election, for they were 
already beginning to fear his power over the peo- 
ple. But at this time there was a man at Rome who 
could aid him greatly with his election, if he would, 
axid he needed Caesar's help as much as Caesar needed 
his. 

This man was named Pompey, and he was called 
"the Great" because of his deeds in war. At one 
time he had put down a dangerous revolt in Spain. 
After that he had helped to stamp out a rebellion of 
gladiators, who had fled in large numbers to Mount 
Vesuvius in Italy, and formed a strong camp there. 
Then, some time after Caesar's adventure with the 
pirates, Pompey had been given a great fleet and had 
been commissioned to make war upon them. With 
this fleet he had started from the Straits of Gibraltar, 
and searched every nook and corner of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, sweeping all the pirates before him till he 
reached the coast of Asia. There he defeated them in 
one great battle, and so cleared the seas of robbers for 
many years thereafter. Following this, Pompey had 
been given the command in a war with a king on the 
southern shore of the Black Sea; and there also he had 
been successful. At last he had come back to Rome 
with much honor, and was given a great triumph by 
the people; but the nobles looked upon him with sus- 
picion, and refused to reward his soldiers, or to 



192 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

approve the arrangements which he had made for the 
conquered country in the East. 

This vexed Pompey exceedingly; so he joined with 
Caesar, and they agreed to help each other in gaining 
what they both wanted. In this way Pompey obtained 
lands for his soldiers and had his acts in the East 
approved; and Caesar received his election as consul. 
After his year as consul was up, and it was time for 
him to go as governor to one of the provinces, as was 
the custom, Caesar was appointed governor of Gaul for 
five years. Before that time was passed he was given 
another term of five years by a new agreement between 
the two men, while Pompey was appointed to govern 
Spain for an equal time. 

The senators were not sorry to see Caesar go to 
Gaul, for they hoped that during his long absence from 
the city, the fickle people of Rome might forget him, 
and so leave him without influence when he returned. 
Or, if this should not happen, they hoped at least that 
something might occur in the meantime to make his 
influence less dangerous to the party of the nobles. 

At this time there were two districts which the 
Romans called by the name of Gaul, and Caesar was 
given command over both of these. One was on the 
Italian side of the Alps, and included the lands in the 
valley of the River Po, on which those Gauls had lived" 
who welcomed Hannibal when he came into Italy. 
This was called "Cis-Alpine Gaul,'' or **Gaul on this 
side of the Alps." The other lay beyond the Alps, in 
what is now southern France, and this was called 
"Trans-Alpine Gaul." 

Cis-Alpine Gaul had been conquered for some time, 



JULIUS C^SAR. THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL. 193 

but in Trans-Alpine Gaul the power of the Romans did 
not extend beyond a little strip of land in the southern 
part, where the country touches the Mediterranean Sea. 
Moreover, the affairs of Gaul beyond the Alps had 
been neglected by the Romans during the late strug- 
gles in the city itself, and when Caesar reached his 
provinces he found that troubles were beginning 
there which needed his immediate attention. He was 
told that a large body of people who lived in the val- 
leys of the Alps, had determined to leave their homes 
among the mountains, and seek new ones in the west- 
ern part of Gaul. They had burned their towns and 
villages, so that their people could have no wish to 
return to their old homes, and they were now ready 
to start on their journey through the Roman prov- 
ince, carrying their families and their goods with 
them. 

The march of so large a body of the Swiss through 
Trans-Alpine Gaul might mean the beginning of much 
trouble for the Romans; so Caesar determined that 
they must be stopped before they had gone any farther 
from their homes. He crossed the Alps in haste, 
therefore, and sent word to the Swiss forbidding them 
to rnarch through his province. Then, when they tried 
in'spite of this to force their way out of the mountains, 
he defeated them in a terrible battle; and sent them 
back to their own country, to rebuild their burned 
homes and settle upon their own lands once more. 

This great victory gave Caesar's soldiers confidence 
in their new commander; and it also caused many of 
the neighboring tribes of Gaul to submit to him, and 
become friends to the Roman people. Soon afterwards 



194 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

the chiefs of one of these tribes appealed to Caesar for 
aid in a trouble of their own, begging him to help 
them against a tribe of Germans, who had lately 
crossed the Rhine, and come into their lands. These 
Germans had already conquered a part of the country, 
and were inviting other German tribes to cross the 
river and join them in overrunning the whole of Gaul. 
This would have been more dangerous even than to 
have had the Swiss pass through the country in search 
of new homes; so Caesar determined to give the help 
that was asked of him, and send the Germans also back 
to their own lands. 

But while Caesar was preparing to march against the 
Germans, his army began to give him trouble. The 
Gauls and the Roman traders, who passed through the 
camp, told marvelous tales of the great size of the 
Germans, of the fierceness of their appearance, and 
of their skill with their weapons. When Caesar's sol- 
diers heard these stories, and when it was whispered 
among them that they were about to march against the 
Germans, they began to fear this people as much as 
Marius's soldiers had done before them. Some of the 
young officers, who had had little experience in war, 
even began to make excuses for being allowed to return 
to Rome. Others, who >vere ashamed to leave the army 
in this way, made their wills, and went about the camp 
with tears streaming down their faces. These claimed 
that it was not the enemy they feared; but that they 
dreaded the narrowness of the roads, and the vastness 
of the forests through which they would have to pass, 
and they were afraid, too, that there would not be food 
enough for the army on its march. 



JULIUS C^SAR, THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL, 195 

When Caesar heard these things, he called a meeting 
of his soldiers and rebuked them. 

''Is it your business/' he asked, "to inquire in what 
direction we are to march, and what are the plans of 
your general? Is it your duty to think of the feeding 
of the army, and the condition of the roads? That is 
my affair, and not yours; and you should not distrust 
me so much as to think that I will not attend to it. I 
suspect, indeed, that it is the enemy that you dread, 
and not the dangers of the march. But even though 
you know that you are to fight against the Germans, 
what is it that you fear in them? They have already 
been defeated by Marius within the memory of our 
fathers. The Swiss, whom you have so lately sent 
back to their homes, have defeated them in their own 
country. Shall we not be able to do what they have 
succeeded in doing? I had intended to put off this 
march of ours to a more distant day; but now I have 
determined to break up our camp during this very 
night, so that I may find out as soon as possible 
whether my soldiers will answer to the call of duty, or 
give way to fear. If no others will follow me, I shall 
still go forward with the tenth legion alone; for I know 
that the men of that company, at least, are too brave 
ever to desert their commander." 

The fears of the soldiers vanished before the scorn 
and determination of their general. The tenth legion 
sent messengers to him to thank him for his confidence 
in them; and the soldiers of the other legions made 
excuses for themselves, and begged him to believe that 
they would follow him wherever he might wish to go. 
Caesar accepted their excuses; but that night, as he 



196 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

had said he would, he began the march. When the 
army came up with the Germans, and a battle was 
fought, Caesar easily defeated the enemy, driving them 
back across the Rhine into their own country. 

These two wars were the beginning of Caesar's com- 
mand in Gaul. In a few months, he had succeeded in 
saving the country from being overrun by the Swiss 
and by the Germans; and perhaps he had even kept 
the barbarians from entering Italy again as in the 
time of Marius. He remained governor of Gaul for 
nine years, and during that time he conquered all the 
country from the Rhine west to the Atlantic Ocean, 
and from the Roman province in the south to the 
English Channel on the north. And several times 
he even passed these limits. Twice when he wished to 
overawe the restless tribes of Germany, he quickly built 
a bridge over the broad Rhine, and led his army across 
to frighten the neighboring tribes into submission. 
Twice, also, he gathered ships and went over into the 
neighboring island of Great Britain, to make war upon 
the tribes that lived there, and punish them for having 
interfered in the affairs of Gaul. 

Caesar was the first Roman general to lead an army 
into either Germany or Britain; and although he made 
no serious attempt to subdue these countries himself, 
he prepared the way for the conquest of Britain, at 
least, in the time that was to come. In Gaul, however, 
he completely conquered the country. When he left 
that land its people had already settled down quietly 
under the Roman rule, and they were beginning to 
learn the Roman customs and the Roman language. 
So entirely did they accept these that they became 



JULIUS C/ESAR, THE CONQUEROR OE GAUL. 197 

almost like the Romans themselves, and even to-day 
the language of the country — French — remains a form 
of the old Latin tongue, which the Roman conquerors 
spoke nearly two thousand years ago. 

One of the things that helped Caesar most in this 
great work of conquest was his power over the com- 
mon soldiers. During, all the years that they fought 
under him in Gaul, they never once repeated the threat 
of disobedience, which they had made when he first 
proposed to lead them against the Germans. From 
that time on they were entirely devoted to him, for 
they had confidence in him. He was willing to share 
every danger and hardship with his men, and when he 
spoke to them he called them "Fellow soldiers," to 
show that he was one of them. In the marches with 
his army, he used to go at the head of his troops, 
sometimes on horseback, but oftener on foot, with his 
head bare in all kinds of weather. At the beginning 
of a battle, he often sent his horse away, so that he 
might lead his men on foot. If they began to give 
way during the fight he would go among them and stop 
those who were flying, turning them towards the enemy 
again; and so by his own courage and determination 
he would compel them to be victorious. 

Caesar was both mild and strict in his control of his 
men. After they had won a victory he would allow 
them to rest and make merry; but before a battle had 
been fought, he demanded unceasing watchfulness and 
entire obedience. He would give no notice of battle 
till the last moment, in order that the soldiers might 
always hold themselves in readiness for it; and, for 
the same reason, he would often lead his men out of. 



198 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

their camp, when there was no need of it, even in 
rainy weather and on holidays. Sometimes, either 
by day or night, he would suddenly give them orders 
to follow without losing sight of him; and then lead 
them on long marches in order to test their strength, 
and to prepare them for doing the same thing when- 
ever there might be real necessity for it. In this way, 
long before Caesar's nine years in Gaul were over, he 
had an army of veterans, every man of whom was will- 
ing to follow him into any danger. 

While Caesar was still in Gaul, he wrote an account 
of his struggles with the barbarians, and sent it to 
Rome, so that the people might know of the successes 
of his army. Many of the Roman books have been 
lost, but Caesar's own account of his wars in Gaul is so 
well written and so interesting that it was carefully 
saved, "and if you should ever study Latin, this will be 
almost the first book that you will read. 



C^SAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE, 199 



XXV 

Caesar and the Beginning of the Empire, 

DURING the years of Caesar's life in Gaul, the mis- 
government of Rome had been growing steadily 
worse. The elections for consuls could not be held 
without disorder, and the candidates for office went 
about with bands of armed men for their protection. 
Sometimes these bands actually fought at the voting 
places; and once the election of consuls was pre- 
vented, by these quarrels, for six months after the 
proper time. Thus the Romans were not only failing 
to rule their provinces justly, — as in the case of Sicily, 
— but the city itself was now filled with confusion and 
violence; and many wise and thoughtful men became 
willing to end the disorder in any way that was pos- 
sible. 

At this time, Cicero was trying to cure the evils of 
the government by urging the people of Rome to be 
as unselfish and virtuous as their forefathers had been. 
His efforts failed, for the people were not willing to 
believe that their greed and selfishness were ruin- 
ing^their country. Perhaps, if they had believed it, 
they could not have changed themselves in order to 
remedy their public evils. They had no idea of alter- 
ing the government by giving it the representative 
form such as we have now; so the only cure that 
/emained was for the rule of the Senate to give wa\' to 



200 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

that of one strong man, who could put down disorder 
and punish wrong-doing. 

But where was the strong man to be found who 
could, and would, force the Senate to step aside and 
let him carry on the government? To be able to do 
this, it was necessary that he should have an army, for 
the Senate would certainly not give up its power with- 
out a struggle. There were only two men at this time 
who had armies which they could use in this way. 
One of them was Pompey, the conqueror of the pirates 
and the East; the other was Caesar, the conqueror of 
Gaul. 

Pompey might long ago have overcome the power of 
the Senate, if he had really desired to do so. He did 
not know much about government, however, and could 
not make up his mind what he wanted to do. Caes^, 
on the other hand, was as able in state affairs as he 
was in war. He had long seen that the old govern- 
ment was so bad that it could only be cured by setting 
up another in its place; and he was quite ready to un- 
dertake this himself, if the chance should come to him. 
For a while Caesar and Pompey had acted together, 
and had'helped each other in politics. But when news 
came to Pompey at Rome of the splendid victories 
which Caesar was winning in Gaul, he began to be 
jealous of him, and at last he was ready to join with 
the party of the nobles in any plan that would destroy 
his power. 

It had been agreed that Caesar was to have his com- 
mand in Gaul for ten years, and when that time was 
passed, he had arranged that he should be elected 
consul again. That would give him an army as con- 



CyESAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 201 

sul, just as soon as he laid down the command of his 
army in Gaul; and when his year as consul was up, he 
would go to one of the provinces again as the head of 
another army for a long term of years. In this way 
there would be no time when Caesar would not have an 
army at his command; and so the nobles would not be 
able to injure him, or put him to death, as they had 
Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. 

The plan which the nobles and Pompey formed, to 
get rid of Caesar, was this. They would make him 
give up his government in Gaul before his last five 
years were over; then, perhaps," when Caesar had no 
army to protect him against injustice, they would bring 
him to trial before the courts at Rome on some charge 
— any charge would do — and have him convicted. By 
this means they would thrust him aside, and the selfish 
government of the Senate could go on as before. 

To carry out this plan, the Senate ordered Caesar to 
give up his governorship, and return to Rome. Caesar 
knew that he could not trust himself there without an 
army to protect him. Nevertheless, he made an offer 
to the Senate to give up his command, if Pompey, who 
was then at Rome with an army near by, would resign 
his also. The Senate replied that Caesar must give up 
his army, or become a traitor to his country; and that 
Pompey need not give up his. 

Caesar now saw that his enemies were planning to 
destroy him; but to resist them meant the beginning 
of a civil war between himself and Pompey. Never- 
theless, he prepared to lead his victorious army across 
the little river Rubicon, which separated Cis-Alpine 
Gaul from Italy, and to march south upon his enemies. 



202 



THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 



The old stories say that after Caesar had drawn up his 
men on the banks of the river he stood for some time 
in deep thought, questioning whether it was the wisest 
thing, after all, for him to go in arms against the gov- 
ernment of his country. While he lingered in doubt, 
a wandering minstrel near by suddenly seized a trum- 
pet from one of the soldiers and sounded the call to 
advance. Caesar accepted this as a sign from the gods. 
''Let us go whither the gods and the wickedness of 

our enemies call 
us," he cried. "The 
die is now cast." 
Then he led his 
veteran soldiers 
across the Rubicon 
and advanced to 
meet the army of 
his countrymen. 

Pompey mean- 
while had made 
almost no prepara- 
tions for the war. 
When some one had asked him what he would do if 
Caesar should march upon Rome, he had replied: 

'T have but to stamp my foot, and soldiers will 
spring up all over Italy to fill the legions of my 
army." 

But after Caesar had crossed the Rubicon, news was 
soon brought to Rome that the Italian towns were 
yielding to him without a struggle. When one of the 
senators taunted Pompey with his vain boast, and 
asked him why he did not stamp his foot, the latter 




ROMAN SOLDIERS. 



CjESAR and the beginning of the empire. 203 

could find no answer. It was too late now to raise 
men to save Rome; so Pompey had to leave the city 
to its new master. He retreated with his army to the 
south of Italy; but Caesar promptly followed him.. 
Then, rather than to fight in Italy, Pompey crossed 
over into Greece; for his influence was strongest there 
and in the East, where his greatest victories had been 
won. Caesar could now follow him no farther, as 
there were not enough ships remaining to carry his 
men across the sea. 

Accordingly, having driven his enemies from Italy in 
sixty days, without the shedding of a drop of blood, he 
turned back to Rome. There he treated the people 
mildly and generously, and the men who had feared 
that the terrible times of Sulla and Marius had come 
again soon saw that they were mistaken. Caesar pun- 
ished no one, and he took the property of none. He 
remained in the city only a short time, and then set 
out for Spain, where the greatest part of Pompey's 
army had been left. 

*T go," he said, ''to attack an army without a gen- 
eral; I shall return to attack a general without an 
army." 

After some difficulty, Caesar succeeded in getting 
possession of the Roman provinces in Spain. He 
now had Gaul, Italy, and Spain under his control, and 
he could turn all his efforts against Pompey and the 
forces in the East. 

He led his army back through Italy by rapid 
marches; and, although it was by this time the middle 
of winter, he immediately crossed into Greece. Then, 
for about four months, the two armies marched and 



204 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

countermarched, and built camps and threw up earth- 
works. During all this time Pompey's army was larger 
than Caesar's; and it was better fed and better cared 
for also, as Pompey's ships could bring him every- 
thing that he needed, while Caesar's men had to live 
upon the country around them. Caesar tried by every 
means to bring on a battle, but without success; for 
Pompey knew that, though he had the larger number 
of men, Caesar had the better soldiers. At last, how- 
ever, Pompey yielded to the urging of his followers, 
and drew out his men for battle. The result was a 
great victory for Caesar. Although Pompey had twice 
as large a force as the conqueror of Gaul, he was 
defeated and his army was destroyed. 

After this battle, Pompey was forced to fly from 
Greece and seek refuge in Egypt. There he was 
basely murdered by men who wished to please Caesar, 
and thought that this would be the surest way of win- 
ning his favor. But when Caesar followed Pompey to 
Egypt, and was shown the proofs of his death, he did 
not rejoice, but turned away his face and wept. To all 
the men who had been in Pompey' s army, he showed 
himself kind and generous; and he wrote to his friends 
at Rome that *'the chief pleasure he had in his victory 
was in saving every day some one of his fellow citizens 
who had borne arms against him." 

After Caesar's victory over Pompey, he established 
his power firmly in Greece, Egypt, and Asia, as he had 
already done in the western countries of the Mediter- 
ranean. When he returned to Rome, Africa was the 
only portion of the Roman Empire that remained 
unconquered; and all who continued hostile to 



C/ESAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 205 

Caesar had gathered there. For a time he remained at 
Rome to attend to public affairs; but as soon as he 
could, he arranged to go to Africa and conquer this 
last army of his enemies. 

Caesar's soldiers, however, were wearied with march- 
ing from one end of the world to the other. The 
tenth legion, which had served him so well, at last 
rebelled, and the men demanded that they should be 
dismissed with the rewards that, were due them for 
their long services. When Caesar heard this, he went 
out and spoke to them. 

"Citizens, you shall be dismissed as you desire, '* he 
said coldly, ''and you shall have all the rewards which 
have been promised you.*' 

But when the soldiers heard their beloved commander 
call them "citizens,'' instead of "fellow soldiers," as 
always before, they no longer desired the thing that 
they had asked for. The rebuke and the idea of 
separation, which lay in that one word, were not to be 
borne. They begged that they might be taken back 
into his service again; and after that, there was no 
longer any talk of dismissal on their part. 

Caesar was as successful in defeating his enemies in 
Africa as he had been everywhere else, and when he 
returned to Rome, he was able to celebrate four tri- 
umphs, one after the other, for his victories in Gaul, 
in Egypt, in Asia, and in Africa. On the day of his 
triumph over Gaul, he ascended the Capitol at night, 
with twenty elephants bearing torches to the right of 
him and twenty to the left. When he triumphed 
because of his victories in Asia, an inscription was 
carried before his chariot which read in Latin, "I 



206 



THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 



came, I saw, 1 conquered." This was copied from 
a message which Caesar had sent to the Senate 
announcing one of his victories, and it was intended 
to remind the people how quickly he had ended the 
troubles in the region of which he wrote. 

Caesar was now master of Rome and of her empire. 
The Roman army, made up of men of all countries, 
v/as the strongest power in the city; and Caesar, who 




C^SAR S TRIUMPH. 



controlled the army, was the first man in the empire. 
He could now make whatever reforms in the state he 
thought best. As the Senate and the people had 
shown so plainly that they were no longer fit for the 
task of governing the nations under their rule, he 
decided to carry on the government himself. He 
allowed the Senate and the assemblies of the people 
to meet as before, but he took good care to see that 
they had no real power. He took charge personally 



CAESAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 207 

of most of the public offices; and, besides the titles 
which went with these, he gave himself the name of 
"Emperor," or commander, and that in time came to 
be the highest title of all. 

Caesar used his great power well. Instead of treat- 
ing those who had fought against him as Sulla and 
Marius had treated their enemies, he tried to make 
them his friends, and allowed them to hold offices 
ufider him. There were still some men left, united 
under the command of the sons of Pompey in Spain, 
who were determined to defy him to the last; and 
Caesar was compelled to leave Rome, and lead an 
army against them himself before they were finally 
defeated. But the greater part of the people of Rome 
were satisfied with the rule of Caesar, because it prom- 
ised to give the peace and safety which they had not 
enjoyed for a long time. 

Caesar lived for only two years after the four-fold 
triumph which followed his return from Africa. In 
those two years, however, he succeeded in doing much 
good for Rome. He made laws for the reform of the 
courts of justice, and others to enable men w^ho were 
in debt, and could not pay, to settle with their credit- 
ors. To reform the manners of life among the 
Romans he had laws passed against extravagance in 
dress and in banquets. He tried to check the growth 
of slave labor by requiring that one-third of the labor- 
ers on sheep-farms must be free. New colonies were 
planned to provide for the poor and idle population of 
the city; and he passed laws to admit many of the 
subjects of Rome to an equality with the citizens them- 
selves. 



208 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

Another of the changes which he carried out is of 
especial interest to us, because the civilized world 
to-day still profits by it. This was a reform of the 
calendar. The Romans divided the year into twelve 
months, as we do; but their months were not long 
enough, so they had an awkward way of putting in 
an extra month about every two years, to make the 
seasons come out right. This plan worked badly, and, 
by the time of C^sar, the calendar and the real year of 
the earth's revolution around the sun, had become 
ninety days apart. As a result of this, the Italian 
farmer began his work in the fields in June and July, 
according to the calendar, when it was really March 
and April. Caesar consulted the most learned men of 
his time, and the calendar was corrected and made to 
agree with the seasons. Then, to keep it right in the 
future, Caesar increased the length of some of the 
months, so' that the ordinary year should have three 
hundred and sixty-five days; and he arranged that 
every fourth year, or leap year, an extra day should be 
given to February. The calendar after this did very 
well, and with one small change we use it still, even 
retaining all the Roman names for the months. One 
of these, July, was given in honor of Caesar himself, 
to commemorate his part in bringing the change about. 

Besides these various reforms, Caesar planned many 
other important works. ' He expected to collect a large 
library at Rome, and this was at a time when books 
were very rare and costly. A theater was also begun, 
and he was planning to build a new Senate house, as 
the old one had been burned in the terrible disorders 
of the late wars. A great temple to Mars was designed 



C^SAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE, 209 

to keep the memory of his victories fresh in the minds 
of the people. At the mouth of the Tiber, an immense 
harbor was to be built, and a new road was projected 
east through the mountains to the Adriatic Sea. In 
the midst of all this he was preparing to lead armies 
against the barbarians on the Danube, and against 
those south of the Caspian" Sea in Asia; for in both 
these regions the people were forcing their way out of 
their own lands and seeking to come into the Roman 
provinces. 

But all these plans were left unfinished or were not 
even begun. Although Rome was now better off than 
it had been at any time for fifty years, there were some 
men among her citizens who still thought that there 
was nothing more shameful than to submit to the rule 
of one man. They longed for the old government of 
the Senate with all its faults. At last sixty of the 
nobles formed a plot to kill Caesar, and so free them- 
selves from his power in the only way that was pos- 
sible. Almost all of these men had received favors 
from Caesar, and one of them, Marcus Brutus, had 
been his friend. Brutus was not an evil man, but 
others who were crafty and selfish persuaded him that 
it was his duty to save his country from Caesar, as his 
ancestor had rescued it from Tarquin long before. So, 
in spite of his feeling for his friend, he joined the plot 
and became one of its leaders. 

Caesar was warned of the danger that threatened 
him, but he would have no guards about him. 

"It is better to die once,*' he said, ''than to live 
always in fear of death." 

He had been warned especial 1\' to beware of the day 



210 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

which the Romans called the ''Ides'' of March; but on 
that day he went to the Senate house as usual. On 
the way there he saw the priest who had given him the 
warning; and he laughed at him, declaring him a 
false prophet, because the Ides of March had come and 
nothing had befallen him. 

"The day is come, Caesar, but it is not gone," 
answered the priest: 

When Caesar entered the Senate house, all the sen- 
ators arose to greet him, as was their custom. Then 
the plotters advanced to Caesar'"s chair, one of them 
pretending to beg a favor of him, while the rest 
appeared to urge the granting of this request. 

Suddenly one of the plotters laid hold of Caesar's 
toga, and dragged it from his shoulders. This was a 
signal for the others, and at once they fell upon him 
with their swords and daggers. For a moment Caesar 
resisted them, and then he saw his friend Brutus strik- 
ing at him among his foes. 

"Thou, too, Brutus!" he cried, and with this he 
ceased his struggles. Wrapping his head in his toga, 
he fell, pierced with many wounds, at the foot of the 
statue of Pompey which stood in the Senate house. 

Thus died one of the ablest men who ever lived in 
any country or at any time. There have been many 
men in the world who have been great in one way; but 
C<esar was great in many ways. He was a better gen- 
eral, perhaps, than any man before or since his time; 
but he was more than this. As a writer and an orator 
he stood foremost among the Romans. He was a wise 
ruler,- who saw clearly what his country needed in 
many different directions, and who spent the short time 



CAESAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 211 

during which he held the power in planning reforms 
and improvements for her benefit. But, best of all, he 
had a generous and fearless spirit, and found it easy to 
forgive those who had injured him, and easier to die 
than to weakly dread to die. He was worthy to become, 
as he did, the first of a long line of emperors, and he 
left a name behind him which is even yet used as the 
highest of titles. When the Germans now speak of 
their "Kaiser," they are simply honoring their ruler 
by the family name of this great Roman; and even the 
''Czar*' of the Russians is supposed to have come from 
the same source. 



212 THE^CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 



XXVI 
Rome in the Time of Augustus. 

THE enemies of Caesar were able to put him to 
death, but they could not bring back the Repub- 
lic, which he had overthrown. After he was gone, the 
quarrels and struggles which he had brought to an end 
began once more. Caesar had left no son to succeed 
him, but when his will was opened it was found that 
he had adopted his nephew Octavius as his son, and 
made him his heir. 

Octavius was not yet nineteen years old, but he soon 
showed that he possessed wisdom which was beyond 
his years. He accepted the inheritance, and set him- 
self to work securing his rights under it. After many 
difificulties, he succeeded in this, and also in the more 
difficult task of punishing Caesar's murderers, who were 
at last defeated and slain in battle. Then he planned 
to obtain Caesar's power in the empire for himself, as 
the lawful successor. This was the hardest thing that he 
had yet attempted, for there were others who were 
grasping as much power as they could, and Octavius 
had to struggle against them. In the end, however, 
he succeeded in getting what he wanted. All of his 
rivals were disposed of, except one; then, twelve years 
after the death of Caesar, Octavius won a great battle 
over this man, and became master of the whole Roman 
world. 



214 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

For a hundred years — ever since the time of the 
Gracchi — the party of the people and the party of the 
nobles had been contending together, but neither one 
could find a cure for the troubles that filled the Roman 
lands. The world was now worn out with these strug- 
gles. The time had come when both the nobles and 
the people must finally yield to the rule of one man, 
with an army to carry out his commands. In this way 
alone could peace, order, and happiness be brought 
to the millions of people who were in the power of 
Rome. Octavius established the rule of the empire, 
which Caesar had begun; and he established it so firmly 
that it lasted undisturbed for five hundred years after 
him. From the time when Octavius obtained the 
power, there was no longer any dispute as to what form 
of government there should be; the only question was, 
who should be the one to carry on the government 
under the form which had been given to rt. 

When Octavius became emperor he called himself 
"Augustus," and it is by this name that we must now 
speak of him. He was a good ruler, and during the 
many years that he governed the empire, the world 
about the Mediterranean was happier than it had ever 
been before. The doors of the temple of Janus, which 
had been shut only thresi times since Rome was 
founded, were now closed again during long periods; 
for peace — "the Roman peace,'' as it was proudly 
called — was spread over the world. From Spain to 
Greece, from Gaul to Egypt, there was no longer any 
war. Travelers came and went in safety on the great 
roads v/ith which the Romans had covered the world; 
the farmers sowed and reaped their fields in peace, and 



ROME LN THE TIME OF AUGUSTUS, 215 

the merchants sent out their goods by land and sea with 
no cause to fear that an enemy might rob them of 
their gains. 

Augustus decided that the empire was now as large 
as it ought ever to become. He fixed the rivers Rhine 
and Danube as the boundaries, on the north, beyond 
which the Romans should not seek to rule; and he 
caused a chain of forts to be built along these rivers 
to defend the Roman lands against the attacks of the 
wild tribes who lived beyond. Nearly all the emper- 
ors who came after Augustus accepted these limits. 
Almost the only land that was added to the empire 
after this time was the island of Britain, and Julius 
Caesar had already prepared the way for its conquest 
while he was overcoming Gaul. 

At Rome, Augustus had many new temples built, 
and those of the older ones, that were showing signs 
of age and use, he caused to be repaired and covered 
over with a facing of marble. Before he died, he 
could say, in speaking of this work: 

*'I found Rome built of brick, but I leave it built of 
marble.*' 

Augustus was also fond of encouraging and reward- 
ing poets and other writers. Partly because of this 
there were more great literary men at Rome during 
his time than ever before or after; and for this reason 
whenever we wish to describe a period which is 
remarkable for many great writers, we still call it an 
"Augustan age.'' 

It is from these writers of the reign of Augustus that 
we learn some of the most interesting things about the 
life of the Roman people. If we wish to see the citi- 



216 



THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 




TOGA — FRONT. 



zens in their streets and homes, 
instead of upon the battlefield as so 
often heretofore, we have now only 
to imagine ourselves the compan- 
ions for a day of the poet Horace, 
who was one of the wisest and wit- 
tiest writers of the time. 

For this glimpse of the city in the 
peaceful reign of Augustus, it will be 
well to choose a day when there is 
no great festival or show, in order 
that we may see the ordinary life 
of the people. The Romans keep 
early hours, so we must be up before 
sunrise and make our way to the 
modest home of 
Horace on the hill 

that lies east of the Forum. There 

we find the poet risen and dressed 

for the street, though he is usually 

later than most of his neighbors. 

To-day, however, he is going to pay 

a morning visit to his friend Maece- 
nas, and he is up in good time. 
After a light breakfast of bread 

dipped in wine, and ripe olives, we 

set out together. As we pass along 

the narrow streets, we are surprised 

at the number of people that we 

meet, though the sun is barely up 

above the horizon. Some are slaves 

and servants, hurrying here and toga— back. 




ROME IN THE TIME OF A UGUSTUS. 217 

there on business of their masters. Others are child- 
ren on their way to school, with slaves accompany- 
ing them, and carrying their tablets and satchels. 
Many, however, are freemen, and are clad in the toga, 
which none but a free Roman citizen may wear. These 
bustle along with little baskets in their hands and 
anxious looks upon their faces. They are "clients," 
we are told, or dependants of great men, who are 
hurrying to pay their visit of state to their patron at 
his morning reception; and the little baskets are to 
carry away the gifts of food which are set out for them 
each day in their patron's house. 

As we approach the splendid mansion of Maecenas, 
with its beautiful gardens, we see many of these 
clients going into the house before us; and as we enter 
we find the outer hall and vestibule full of them. 
Maecenas is the friend and adviser of Augustus, and 
his influence in the state is very great. As he is also 
a liberal and kindly man, the number of clients who 
are dependent on him is quite large. However, we 
are not troubled by the number of these visitors, 
'though they are pushing and shoving to get ahead of 
one another; for Horace is upon quite a different foot- 
ing with Maecenas, and is admitted at once to the 
presence of the master of the house. 

We enter with him, and find ourselves in a large 
stately hall, richly ornamented with pictures and 
statues. There Maecenas is receiving the greetings of 
the more important of his clients, while he advises one, 
perhaps, on some point connected with a suit at law, 
and tells another how best to invest his money. But as 
soon as he sees Horace, he comes forward with a 



218 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

smile on his face, for he loves him, and honors him as 
Rome's greatest poet. While the two friends talk, we 
glance about the hall, and admire the graceful marble 
columns which support the roof. From time to time 
we catch bits of the conversation between Maecenas and 
our guide. 

''Nay, Maecenas," Horace is saying, "though no 
one is of a nobler family than yourself, you are not one 
of those who toss up their heads at men of humble 
birth. If you had been such a person, I should have 
had no chance of ever gaining your friendship and 
aid; for my father, as you know, was born a slave, 
though he gained his freedom. I shall never be 
ashamed of my father, however, for though he was a 
poor man on a lean little farm, he guarded me from bad 
habits and gave me an education fit for a senator's son." 

After some further talk, Horace takes his leave, and 
we return with him to his little home. As we enter 
we glance at a sun-dial which stands near by, and see 
that it is near the close of the second hour, or about 
eight o'clock. 

In the Forum, the next three hours are the busiest 
of the day. Now the judges are seated on their 
benches, listening to the pleas of the orators in the 
suits at law; and now the crowd of idlers is greatest 
there. But Horace is not interested in such matters; 
he quietly enters his library, and there he remains, 
reading and writing, until near midday. Then, a 
light luncheon of bread, cold meat, fruit, and wine is 
served by the slaves; and after that comes the mid- 
day rest and nap, which is still common in all warm 
climates. 



ROME IN THE TIME OF A UGUSTUS. 219 

In the aftern.oon, we accompany Horace, once more, 
as he leaves the house and sets out for the heart of the 
city. As we stroll along, we see groups of children 
gathered in the shadow of the houses. Here some 
girls are playing a game with small bones, which is 
very much like our ''jack stones,'' and others sit sing- 
ing to their dolls. Elsewhere we find groups of active 
boys, playing with nuts in much the same ways that 
our boys play with marbles. 

As we pass the shops where provisions are sold, 
Horace stops to ask the prices of herbs and bread of 
the slaves, who have the shops in charge; and when he 
comes to the booth of a fortune teller, he stands 
listening in the crowd for a while, and smiles at the 
silly folk who believe all the nonsense that is told 
them. When we reach the Forum, we find it almost 
deserted; only a few laggards, like ourselves, are to 
be seen, and they seem to be on their way toward the 
open ground by the river. 

We follow after them, and soon reach the Field of 
Mars. Here the armies assemble in time of war, and 
here, too, we see the voting places where the elections 
are held each year. But it is nothing of this sort that 
draws the people now. As we look about us, we see 
everywhere men of all ages — old and young — engaged 
in games and exercises of some sort; and almost every 
afternoon, at this time, we could find the same sight. 
Men are running, leaping, wrestling, hurling the spear 
and quoit. Some are practicing feats on horseback; 
others, armed with shields and stout clubs, are aiming 
heavy blows at tall posts; and others still are playing 
games with balls of various kinds and sizes. 



220 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

For a while Horace takes part in this latte-r exer- 
cise. We join him and throw the ball about until our 
muscles are tired and our bodies heated with the exer- 
cise in the bright sunshine. Then, leaving the Field 
of Mars, we go to refresh ourselves at the baths. 

To the Roman, the daily bath is just as important 
as daily exercise; and many fine and costly buildings, 
for this purpose, have been erected by wealthy men and 
opened to the people. Some of these include within 
them gardens, columned porches, libraries, and every- 
thing that can give one comfort and amusement; and 
these baths have come to be great places of resort for 
the Roman idlers. 

We will go with Horace, however, to one of the 
less pretentious buildings, where baths alone are to 
be found. There, for a very small sum, we may have 
a cold swimming bath, a hot-water or a hot-air 
bath. We make our choice, and after bathing, and 
rubbing our bodies with olive oil, we are delightfully 
refreshed and ready to enjoy the remainder of the day. 

Horace has been invited to dinner, for this evening, 
at the house of an acquaintance. The water-clocks 
and sun-dials tell us that it is now nearing the ninth 
hour, — by our time about three o'clock — so we must 
hasten, as Roman dinners begin in the middle of the 
afternoon. When we reach the house, we are at once 
shown into the dining-room. There we find the little 
company gathered, and among them we recognize 
Maecenas, whose reception we attended in the eariy 
morning. Standing with him, we see a man of fine 
features and bright eyes, whose face lights up as, now 
and then, in the course of the conversation, he quotes 



ROME IN THE TIME OF A UGUSTUS, 



221 



a verse of poetry. This is Vergil, the friend of Hor- 
ace, whose great poem on the fall of Troy has been 
preserved, and is yet read with delight by scholars the 
world over. 

In the center of the room we see a small table of 
maple wood, and about three sides of this are arranged 
couches or sofas on which the guests are to recline 
during the dinner. When 
we have taken our places, 
three on a couch, slaves 
advance and remove the 
sandals from our feet. 
Others hand around silver 
basins filled with water, 
for our hands, which ceases 
to surprise us when we 
notice that there are no 
knives or forks upon the 
table to serve in place of 
fingers. 

When our hands have 
been bathed and dried, 
slaves enter with a tray 
containing the first course 

of the dinner. This is placed on the table in front of us; 
and we see that it consists of a wild boar roasted whole, 
with eggs, lettuce, radishes, olives, and other relishes 
heaped about it. While we are being helped to these 
dishes, wine mixed with honey is handed about in 
golden goblets. After this course many others fol- 
low, — roast fowls, fresh oysters, fish with strange 
sauces, blackbirds roasted with their feathers on, pastry 




VERGIL. 



222 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

made in wonderful shapes, fruits and nuts. Yet this 
is not a fine banquet, according to their ideas; for 
whole fortunes, at times, are spent by the Romans on 
a single entertainment. 

Though we took our places at the table at three 
o'clock, we do not rise from it until near sunset. 
After the hunger of all is satisfied, basins of water are 
again passed for the cleansing of the hands after the 
repast. But the guests still linger about the table, 
drinking wine weakened with water, playing at games, 
and talking. 

As we listen to the conversation our attention is 
caught by something that Horace is saying. He is 
expressing his preference for a life in the country, and 
declaring how much he would rather be at his little 
farm near Rome, w^hich the generous Maecenas has 
given him, than in the bustling city. 

*'Happy is the man," he says, "who tills his little 
farm with his own oxen, far away from the noise and 
hurry of the city. He is neither alarmed by the 
trumpet which calls the soldier to arms, nor frightened 
by the storms which cause the merchant to fear for 
his ships at sea. In the spring he trims his vines, 
stores his honey, and shears his sheep; and when 
autumn comes, he gathers his pears and the purple 
grape. He may lie full length on the matted grass 
under some old tree, and listen to the warbling of the 
birds in the woods, and the waters gliding by in their 
deep channels. And when winter comes, with its 
rains and snows, he may hunt the wild boar with his 
hounds, or spread nets to take thrushes, and snares to 
catch hares and cranes.'' 



ROME IN THE TIME OF A UG USTUS. 223 

At last the company breaks up, just as the sun is 
setting beyond the Tiber. All the company go to 
their homes, for as the Romans are early risers, they 
go to bed early also. Soon after darkness has fallen, 
the greater part of the people in this vast city are 
buried in slumber, while the shadows of the streets 
are only broken, here and there, by a glimmer from 
the lamp of some belated household. The Roman 
day is at an end. 



224 THE CITY OF THE SE YEN HILLS, 



XXVII 
The Empire After Augustus. 

WHEN Augustus died, the whole empire mourned 
for him. As time went on, however, men 
regretted him yet more bitterly; for it was long before 
they had another ruler as wise and good. 

The step-son of Augustus became emperor after him, 
and he was a cruel tyrant who put men to death upon 
mere suspicion. The next emperor was half-mad, and 
once threatened to have his horse made consul. At 
another time he raised a great army, and marched it 
hundreds of miles, only to command the soldiers to 
gather the shells upon the sea-beach and carry them 
back to Rome. After him came a weak and foolish 
emperor who allowed the cruelest acts to be com- 
mitted in his name, and immediately forgot them, and 
invited the persons to dinner whom he had just caused 
to be put to death. Then came an emperor named Nero, 
who was a monster of vanity and cruelty. He was sus- 
pected of setting fire to the city and allowing more than 
two-thirds of it to burn, in order that he might rebuild 
it finer than it had been before. 

But even under such rulers, the misgovernment 
scarcely extended beyond the city of Rome itself, and 
the distant provinces were more prosperous and happy 
than they had been during the time when the Senate 



THE EMPIRE AFTER A UGUSTUS, 



225 



and the people of Rome ruled 
over them. For a hundred years 
there was no civil war. Then when 
one did begin, after the death of 
Nero, it lasted only a short time, 
and ended by bringing in a suc- 
cession of emperors, almost every 
one of whom was as strong and 
worthy as Augustus. 

Before this civil war, all the 
emperors who had ruled had been 
related in some way to the family 
of Julius Caesar; but after it, this 
was no longer the case. The em- 
perors now were usually the lead- 
ers of the armies which guarded 
the different borders of the em- 
pire. Like the soldiers whom 
they commanded, they were often 
not Romans at all, but had been 
born and reared in some of the 
province's. They did not care so 
much for the city of Rome and the 
Romans, therefore; and in the 
course of time the people of Sicily 
and Spain, and finally of all the 
provinces, were admitted to have K 
equal rights in the empire with 
the citizens of Rome itself. 

A new plan was found in this 
period for providing a successor 
for the ruler of the empire. The 






226 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

emperor would choose the best man he could find, and 
adopt him as his son; then this son would share the rule 
with him while he lived, and succeed him when he died. 
In this way the empire had a hundred years of the 
best government that it was ever to know. Indeed, 
the people who dwell about the Mediterranean have 
never experienced since a time of such unbroken 
happiness. 

One of the emperors who made this period famous 
was named Trajan, and he became so great a favorite, 
that when the Romans wished to pay a compliment to 
a ruler after this, they could only declare him to be 
"more fortunate than Augustus and better than 
Trajan.'' He was a fine general, and made war upon 
the people who lived beyond the Danube, conquer- 
ing some of their territory; but this was soon given 
up again. To celebrate his victories, Trajan set up in 
the Forum at Rome, a carved marble column, one hun- 
dred and thirty feet high, with his statue on the top. 
This column still stands after eighteen hundred years; 
and winding around the outside of it may yet be traced 
carvings of scenes from his wars about the Danube. 

Trajan was followed by the Emperor Hadrian, a man 
of peace, and a great traveler and builder. He visited 
all the provinces of the empire, from far-off Britain to 
Egypt and the East. Wherever he went he caused new 
temples, theaters, and other public buildings to be 
raised, and the old ones to be repaired. In Britain, 
he built a great wall across the island from sea to sea, 
to protect the Roman citizens there against the tribes 
that lived in what is now Scotland. 

The two emperors who came just after Hadrian were 



THE EMPIRE AFTER A UGUSTUS. 



227 



different from any that had gone before. They were 
scholars and wise men, and liked the quiet of their 
libraries much better than the noise of armies and 
battles, or the traveling of which Hadrian had been so 
fond. But they both governed with the single pur- 
pose of making the people under their rule as happy 
as possible; so when it became necessary to make war 
to defend the empire, they 
did not hesitate to give up 
their own desires and march 
at the head of their armies. 
This became more and more 
necessary during the reign of 
Marcus Aurelius, the second 
of these two emperors; and 
finally he met his death on 
the bank of the River Dan- 
ube, fighting against the Ger- 
mans who lived along that 
stream. 

With the death of this 
great and good ruler, the 
* 'golden age" of the empire 

came to an end. From now on the barbarians pressed 
more closely on the northern boundaries, and it became 
more difficult to repel their attacks. The Romans and 
the Italians had lost their former courage and skill in 
fighting, which had enabled them to conquer the whole 
world; while the barbarians had learned much about war 
from their long struggles with Rome. Besides this, the 
government now fell once more into unworthy hands. 
Ignorant soldiers gave the rule to men who were not fit 




MARCUS AURELIUS. 



228 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

for it; and at one time the position of emperor was 
even put up at auction and sold to the highest bidder. 

So a hundred years of war and bloodshed followed. 
This did not cease, until at last a strong ruler named 
Diocletian got the power, and divided the empire into 
an eastern and western half, each with its own ruler, 
so that the people might be better defended from the 
barbarians, and better governed in their own countries. 
Many other changes were made by Diocletian; then 
when his work was finished, he resigned his power and 
spent the rest of his days in quiet, far from the strug- 
gles of war and politics. 

Soon after Diocletian had laid down his power, a new 
emperor ruled who once more united the eastern and 
western halves of the empire. This emperor, Constan- 
tine the Great, did two very important things. He 
was the first emperor to become a Christian himself, 
and to allow the Christians to practice their religion 
openly, and he moved the capital of the Roman empire 
to the shores of the Black Sea, where he built a new 
city which was called '^Constantinople," or **the city 
of Constantine.'' Some time after the death of Con- 
stantine the empire was again divided into an eastern 
and a western part; and this time the division was a 
lasting one. After that there was an empire of the 
east, with its capital at Constantinople; and an empire 
of the west, with its capital at Rome. 

Meanwhile, the barbarians, especially the Germans, 
had been growing more and more troublesome. Great 
hordes of them at last broke through the line of forts 
along the Rhine and the Danube, and wandered up 
and down the lands of the empire, plundering and 



THE EMPIRE AFTER A UGUSTUS. 229 

destroying for many years. Battle after battle was 
fought with them, and sometimes the Germans were 
the victors, and sometimes the Romans; but the armies 
of the emperors were never again strong enough to 
drive them out of the Roman lands. 

Then the Romans tried to buy off the Germans by 
giving them districts in which to settle, and by taking 
their young men into the Roman armies. But the 
news of the success of these bands soon brought others 
after them, all demanding lands within the bounds of 
the empire. Often they would not wait to request a 
place to settle, but would seize upon it without ask- 
ing, and the armies of the empire could not hinder 
them. In this way, Spain, Gaul, Britain, and even north- 
ern Italy, passed into the hands of the Germans; and in 
all these lands the Roman rule came to an end forever. 

In the east the new city of Constantinople was so 
well situated, and so strongly built, that the Germans 
were never able to capture it; and the empire there 
went on for a thousand years longer. But the empire 
of the west was not so strong. The city of Rome 
had been greatly weakened when Constantine moved 
the capital to the Black Sea, and it was not so able 
to withstand the attacks of the barbarians. Just 
eight hundred years after it had first been taken by 
the Gauls, Rome fell into the hands of the barba- 
rians a second time, and was plundered by a wander- 
ing tribe of Germans. Then sixty-six years later, in 
the year 476 after Christ, one of these German chiefs 
seized the last Roman emperor in Italy, and took his 
crown and scepter from him; and the Roman empire 
of the west quietly came to an end. 



230 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HHLS. 

So the vast territory of Rome had shrunken again to 
the city itself. The Romans had gained their power 
in the beginning because they were worthy to rule, 
and they lost it when they were no longer capable of 
doing so. The rule of Rome, which had at first been 
a blessing to the world, at last became an injury to it; 
and when that time came, it was easy for the Germanic 
barbarians to overthrow the old government. 

But it is easier to destroy an empire than it is to 
create one. The Germans were at this time a rude 
and unlettered people, who had never lived in cities 
and were ignorant of many things connected with rul- 
ing over them. It was to take them a long time to 
learn to govern as well as the old Romans had done, but 
in the end they succeeded in doing so. Then the mod- 
ern nations of Europe arose out of the ruins of the 
Roman Empire, and united in themselves all that was 
best of the old Roman civilization, with the newer 
and freer ideas of the Germans. 



THE CHRISTIANS AND THE EMPIRE. 231 



XXVIII 

The Christians and the Empire. 

DURING the centuries while the Roman power 
was slowly passing away, another was gathering 
strength to take its place. This was the Christian 
religion, which took possession of the minds and hearts 
of the Romans; then of the barbarian Germans, who 
had conquered them; and so spread about the world 
and overcame it in a better way than that of Rome. 

Palestine, the land of tfie Jews, was first conquered 
by Pompey, before his war with Caesar, while he was 
setting the affairs of the east in order. There Christ 
was born while Augustus was emperor, and he was put 
to death in the reign of the successor of Augustus. 
Up to that time the teachings of Christ had not spread 
beyond the groups of Jews who had accepted them. 
After his death, however, the Apostles — especially the 
Apostle Paul — began to carry his message to other 
nations; and soon there were little bands of Christians 
to be found in many of the cities about the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. 

Then it began to be a question as to how the Roman 
government would treat this new religion. Usually 
the Romans were very tolerant, and allowed the 
nations that they conquered to worship whatever gods 
they chose, and even to establish their religion in 



232 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

Rome itself. The Egyptians and Jews and other east- 
ern nations had been allowed to build temples in the 
capitol, and worship their gods there with almost no 
hindrance or disturbance. 

It was different, however, with the Christians. 
There were many reasons why the Romans would not 
let them worship freely. The Jews were very bitter 
against the Christians, and they informed the Romans 
that the new sect were guilty of many horrible crimes 
in their meetings. These charges were not true, of 
course; but the Romans, and the Jews themselves, 
believed them. Then, too, the Christians were 
charged with introducing a new and strange god, and 
with denying that the gods of the empire were gods at 
all. They would not offer sacrifice to the Roman 
deities — especially to the statues of the emperors, 
who were now looked upon as gods. So they were 
charged with rebellion, and with plotting to over- 
throw the government; and whenever war, or famine, 
or disease, came upon the people, they were ready to 
blame it upon the Christians. 

''The gods are angry with us for sheltering those 
who deny themT' they cried at such times. ''The 
Christians must be put to death! To the lions with 
the Christians!'* 

Then all persons who were suspected of holding the 
new faith were seized and hurried off to the judges. 
If they admitted that they were Christians, they were 
promptly sentenced to death. If they denied it, they 
were asked to offer sacrifice to the statue of the 
emperor. In case they refused, the charge was re- 
garded as proved, and they, too, were declared guilty. 



THE CHRISTIANS AND THE EMPIRE. 233 

In this way the prisons were filled with Christians. 
It made no difference whether they were slave or free, 
old or young, strong men or delicate women, — their 
fate was the same. When next the people were gath- 
ered to see the games in the great Circus, the Chris- 
tians were driven into the arena. Then lions, and 
leopards were turned loose upon them, while the 
cruel Romans shouted and cheered from their seats 
above. 

The first persecution of the Christians at Rome took 
place while Nero was emperor. A great fire had 
broken out, burning more than two-thirds of the city; 
and, as has been said, the Romans blamed this upon 
their reckless emperor. It was reported that while 
the waves of flame were sweeping over the city, Nero 
had been seen on a tower, watching the sight, and 
carelessly playing upon a harp and singing. The 
Roman people were very angry, and for a while a 
rebellion seemed to be threatened. To quiet them, 
Nero had it reported that it was the Christians who 
had started the fire, and that while it was burning many 
of them had been seen going about with torches in 
their hands, lighting the buildings which had not yet 
caught. 

This turned the people's wrath from their emperor to 
the Christians. The cry arose on every side, "To the 
lions with the Christians''; and hundreds of them 
were hurried off to prison without any kind of trial. 
Nero also invented many new and cruel punishments 
for them. Some were covered with the skins of wild 
beasts, and dogs were set on them. Others were 
wrapped in sheets of pitch and burned at iii^ht in the 



234 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

emperor's gardens, under the name of Nero's candles. 
Others, more mercifully, were put to death in their 
prisons; and in later days it was said that the Apostles 
Peter and Paul had been called upon to end their lives 
thus. 

It was not always, however, the evil emperors like 
Nero who persecuted the Christians. Sometimes the 
worst treatment was given them by the orders of good 
emperors, who were ignorant of the real teachings of 
Christ, and believed that the charges made against 
the sect were true. In this way it happened that 
Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Diocletian all perse- 
cuted the Christians, and had large numbers of them 
put to death. These troubles lasted for such a great 
length of time that for generations they were forced 
to worship in secret and have a refuge that should be 
always ready when danger threatened. 

One of the great differences between the Christians 
and the Romans was in the disposal of their dead. 
Instead of burning the bodies in the Roman fashion, the 
Christians buried them; but not in cemeteries such as 
we know. They dug out great tunnels and caves in the 
soft rock, and formed tombs along the sides of these. 
In the course of years the hills of Rome came to be 
mined through and through with such tunnels, or ''cata- 
combs," as they were called. They made a great net- 
work of passages, miles and miles in length, which 
crossed and re-crossed one another, under the city, just 
as the Roman streets did on the surface of the ground 
above. When a persecution began, the Christians would 
hide themselves in these streets of the dead beneath 
the town; and there, too, they would often hold their 



THE CHRISTIANS AND THE EMPIRE. 235 

church services to comfort and support one another in 
their times of trial and distress. 

In spite of the protection of the catacombs, many 
hundreds of Christians were put to death because of 
their religion; and many more were imprisoned, or 
suffered in other ways for their faith. These were 
called **martyrs,'' which means '^witnesses'' for the 
Truth. Some of the most earnest Christians eagerly 
sought to receive a martyr's death, and mourned if 
they were not granted it. Even boys and girls became 
heroes in these persecutions, and endured death with- 
out flinching, — glad that they were suffering as Christ 
had suffered for them. 

One of the noblest martyrs of this time was a man 
named Polycarp, who was put to death in Asia Minor 
while Marcus 'Aurelius was emperor. He was then an 
old man of ninety years, and all the Christians of the 
east looked up to him with love and admiration, for 
he had been a disciple of the Apostle John. When 
the soldiers came to arrest him, their commander took 
pity on him, and tried to persuade him to sacrifice to 
the Roman gods, and so save his life. 

"What harm can there be in saying 'the emperor, 
our Lord,' and in offering sacrifices to him ?" he asked. 

At first Polycarp was silent; but when they went on 
to urge him, he said mildly: 

*T will not do as you advise me." 

When he was brought before the Roman governor of 
that province, he, too, urged him to swear by the 
emperor as by a god, and give proof of his repentance 
by saying, with the people, **Away with the godless." 
But Polycarp looked with a firm eye at the crowd that 



236 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HHLS. 

stood by; then pointing directly at them and with his 
eyes lifted to heaven, he cried: 

"Away with the godless." 

The governor urged him further, however. ''Curse 
Christ, and I will release you," he said. 

"Eighty-six years have I served him," answered 
Polycarp. "He has done me nothing but good, — and 
how could I curse him, my Lord and Saviour? If you 
wish to know what I am, I tell you frankly I am a 
Christian." 

Even then the Roman governor wished to save the 
brave old man, but Polycarp would not yield. At 
last a herald proclaimed his faith to the assembled 
people. 

"Polycarp has confessed that he is a Christian." 

When the people heard these words, they cried out 
that he was the father of the Christians, that he was 
the enemy of their gods, and that he had taught many 
to turn from their worship and cease to sacrifice in 
their temples. They demanded that Polycarp should 
be burned at the stake, and they themselves gathered 
the wood from the workshops and the baths. Then 
the Roman governor was obliged to give his consent, 
and Polycarp met his death with the same steadfast- 
ness and courage which he had shown at his trial. 

Men and women of all classes and of all ages 
suffered thus and were put to death, but still the 
number of the Christians increased with each perse- 
cution. 

"Go on," said one of the Christian writers to the 
Roman rulers; "go on, — torture us and grind us to 
dust. Our numbers increase more rapidly than you 



THE CHRISTIANS AND THE EMPIRE, 237 

mow us down. The blood of the martyrs is the seed 
of the Church." 

At last the time came when the persecutions ceased 
altogether, and the emperors themselves, and all of 
their officers became Christians. This happened, 
as you have already learned, while Constantine was 
on the throne. During the first part of his reign the 
emperor had to struggle against several rivals for 
his power. At one time, the story goes, while he 
was marching rapidly from Gaul into Italy to attack 
one of his enemies, he saw a flaming cross in the 
sky, in broad daylight, and on the cross were these 
words: 

'Tn this sign, conquer." 

In the battle which followed, Constantine did con- 
quer; and he believed that he owed his victory to the 
god of the Christians. So immediately afterwards he 
issued an order to stop the persecutions and permit the 
Christians to practice their religion openly and in 
peace. 

After this, Constantine became a Christian himself, 
and did all that he could to favor their cause. Tem- 
ples were taken away from the priests of the old gods 
and given to the Christians to use as churches; and 
only Christians were appointed to offices under the 
empire. When Constantine died, his sons remained 
in the same faith; and the number of the Christians 
grew rapidly under them. The nephew of Constan- 
tine, however, ceased to be a Christian when he became 
emperor, and tried to bring the people back to the 
worship of Mars and Jupiter once more, but he did not 
succeed. Thc^ new faith had tp.kiMi too deep a hold on 



238 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

the hearts of the people. After him, all of the emperors 
were Christians; and at last a time came when the old 
worship was done away with altogether. The altars of 
the gods were thrown down; their images were broken; 
and the sacred fire in the temple of Vesta, which had 
burned without interruption for eleven centuries, was 
extinguished forever. The new religion was firmly 
established and had already begun to change the world. 



THE REMAINS OF ROME, 239 



XXIX 

The Remains of Rome. 

THE Roman Empire came to an end many cen- 
turies ago, but much of what its people were and 
did still remains. The Romans live for us yet in their 
history, and also in the languages and laws of Europe, 
which are founded in large part upon the language 
and law of Rome. Their roads, bridges, and walls can 
even now be traced all over Europe, and at Rome a 
few great buildings remain which give us a faint idea 
of the grandeur of the ancient city. Moreover, by a 
strange chance, the Roman city of Pompeii has been 
preserved for us entire, very much as it was toward 
the close of the first century after Christ; and in this 
we can draw near to the life of the people of Rome as 
it must have been eighteen hundred years ago. 

You will remember that the earlier Romans of the 
time of Cincinnatus lived partly in the country upon 
thejr farms, and partly in the city. Although the 
Romans of the empire had changed greatly in their 
thoughts and tastes from those of the earlier days, they 
were like them in this, — that they did not confine them- 
selves to a life in Rome. Every citizen who was able 
to afford it, had a house outside the city, on some 
beautiful Italian lake, at the foot of the mountains, or 
on the seashore. The western coast of Italy was 
lined, in places, with the country houses, or villas, of 



240 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. 

the Romans; and one beautiful bay — that on which 
the city of Naples stands — was noted for the number 
of the towns and villas around its shores. 

Overlooking this bay, at the present time, is the 
lofty peak of Mt. Vesuvius. Travelers who visit the 
city of Naples to-day are sometimes fortunate enough 
to see an eruption of Vesuvius; for it is now one of the 
most active volcanoes of the world. Up to the first 
century after Christ, however, the Romans knew noth- 
ing of Vesuvius as an active volcano. Cities were 
built at its very foot; and one of the Roman writers 
describes it as rising behind these towns, **well culti- 
vated and inhabited all around, except the top, which 
is for the most part level and entirely barren, ashy to 
the view, and displaying great hollows in rocks which 
look as if they had been eaten by fire. So we may 
suppose this spot,'* he continues, ''to have been a vol-, 
cano formerly, with burning craters, which are now 
extinguished for want of fuel." 

In the year 79 a.d., the fires of Vesuvius burst forth 
again, after their long quiet, and brought destruction 
to the country around it. It was the afternoon 
of a November day, and the burning heats of sum- 
mer were past. Many of the Roman visitors had left 
their country homes, and returned to the capital. 
Some, however, still lingered in their beautiful villas; 
and such of them as were not taking their afternoon 
nap were reading, or busying themselves with other 
matters. In the cities near by, life was going on as 
usual. In one place masons were at work repairing a 
damaged building, while the shopkeepers were show- 
ing their wares to customers in the Forum, and in the 



THE REMAINS OF ROME, 241 

crowded theater men and women watched with eager 
faces the struggles of the gladiators. 

Suddenly a strange cloud, shaped like a pine-tree, 
with a lofty trunk and a cluster of branches at the top, 
was seen to rise above Vesuvius. As the people 
watched, it continually changed in height; and was 
sometimes bright as fire and sometimes streaked with 
black. 

This was the beginning of a great eruption of dust 
and ashes, which lasted for days, and is said to have 
scattered its showers of volcanic dust as far as Africa 
and Egypt. At the same time, the land was shaken 
by earthquakes and the sea drew back from the shore. 
In terror, the people fled in all directions, by sea and 
land, thinking the end of the world had come. Most 
of them escaped in safety, but some, who tried to 
brave the danger and remain in the cities, were lost. 

When the eruption had ceased, it was found that a 
thick layer of ashes and mud was spread over the 
country around, and the towns which were nearest to 
the mountain were covered so deeply that only the 
tops of the tallest buildings were visible above the 
surface of the ground. As the years went by, other 
eruptions came, and added to the thickness of this 
covering. Then the top layer was gradually changed 
to a fine loam and vegetation sprang up and covered 
the spot where the cities lay buried. At last they 
seemed wholly lost to the memory of man. 

For sixteen hundred years the towns about Mount 
Vesuvius remained securely hidden. Then a well, 
deeper than usual, happened to be dug above one of 
them, and ancient statues were unearthed, and bits of 



242 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

sculptured marble. Search was made, and it was 
found that the well had struck the stage of a buried 
theater. Then scholars remembered the story of the 
destruction of the cities so long ago, and they began 
to dig elsewhere. 

From that time to this, the work of uncovering the 
buried cities has been slowly progressing. Several 
museums are now filled with the pictures, statues, and 
household furniture which have been taken from 
beneath the ashes of Vesuvius. The town which has 
been most thoroughly examined is Pompeii, of which 
over one-half has been laid bare. There we of the 
twentieth century can see the houses and streets of the 
first century after Christ, very much as they were left 
when the citizens fled in fear for their lives through 
the showers of falling stones and ashes. 

The removal of the earth over Pompeii has shown 
that the city had a forum, surrounded by temples 
and law courts, and other public buildings; and this, 
as at Rome, was the most splendid part of the city. 
It is not for the public buildings, however, that we 
care most: ancient temples, and other public build- 
ings, as well preserved as these, may be found in 
other places. But the glimpse which we get here into 
the private houses of the town, and into the life of the 
people in the streets and shops, we can get nowhere 
else, and it is this which makes our interest in Pompeii 
so great. 

The first thing that strikes the traveler who is view- 
ing the town for the first time is the narrowness of the 
streets. In some of the broadest of them, two chariots 
could scarcely have passed each other; and some of 



THE REMAINS OF ROME, 



243 



the ways are so narrow as not even to allow the 
entrance of one. The pavements are formed of large 
pieces of stone, joined together with great care; and 
the ruts worn by the passing wheels can still be seen 
in some of them. On each side of the street is a nar- 
row walk for the foot passengers. This is raised above 
the level of the roadway, and large stepping-stones are 




A STREET IN POMPEH. 



placed in the middle of the street to enable the people 
to cross from one side to the other in rainy weather. 

The houses along these cramped streets are placed 
out to the edge of the pavement, and have their plain 
and unadorned side toward the passers-by. They are 
built, — as are the houses in many countries to-day, — 
about one or more inner courts into which most of the 



244 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

rooms open. Often the street side was occupied by 
shops which were rented out by the owner and which 
had no connection with the life of the house itself. 

Upon entering even one of the finest of these dwell- 
ing houses, the visitor goes through a passageway 
lying between two of the shops which make up the 
front of the house. On the floor of this entry there is 
likely to be the Latin word for ^'Welcome" formed of 
bits of stone in Mosaic work. Crossing this, one enters 
first the large public reception hall. Here the master 
of the house received the visitors who came to see him 
on business, or to pay their respects to him. If they 
came from a distance, they might have been lodged 
over night in the small rooms which open off from the 
hall on each side. The walls of this large room were 
decorated with paintings and drawings, and here and 
there, are pedestals where statues once stood. The 
floor here, and, indeed, all through the lower story of 
the house, was formed of blocks of marble or other 
stone, and usually these were selected of different 
colors and were arranged to form a pattern of some 
sort. 

In the center of the floor of this main room is a 
square basin, several feet deep, which lay just beneath 
a corresponding opening in the roof and caught the 
rain which fell through it. Unfortunately, the roofs of 
the houses have all been broken down or burned, and 
the rooms are now open to the sky; but we know of 
this arrangement from many other sources. In the 
beginning, it was left to let out the smoke and vapors 
from the fires; for none of the houses had chimneys, 
and the fireplaces were only metal pots or pans in 



THE REM A IAS OE ROME, 



245 



ivhich charcoal might be burned. We could not 
imagine ourselves living, during our colder winters, 
with such an opening over our heads; but in the warm 
climate of Italy, this plan had many advantages. For 
one thing, the rooms were thus freely ventilated; and 
an awning, drawn across the opening, served to keep 
out the sun in summer. 

Leaving the public hall, the visitor comes through 




A ROMAN HOUSE. 



another passage to the private part of the house, where 
the women and children lived, and where no guest 
might enter without a special invitation from the 
master. Here is another court, with rows of slender, 
graceful columns about it. Opening from this are 
small low bedrooms, which we should think very un- 
comfortable; and here, too, is the dining-room, where 
the master of the house entertained his friends at 



246 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, 

dinnor. Above this court, also, there was an opening 
in the roof, with a basin below to catch the water; and 
about the basin and among the columns, there perhaps 
grew beds of blooming flowers and clumps of ever- 
greens. 

Only the ground floor remains of most of the houses 
of Pompeii; but there must have been a second story 
to all of the better houses, and sometimes even a third. 
But the upper part of the house was for the use of the 
slaves and the dependants of the family, and could not 
have been so well arranged, nor so beautiful, as the 
lower floor. 

At the first discovery of such a house as this the 
walls were not found hung with framed pictures, as 
with us. Instead of that, they were beautifully deco- 
rated with designs and scenes painted on the wall 
itself, the colors still almost fresh in the darkness of 
the buried city. Some of these pictures have now 
been allowed to fade by exposure to the light and air; 
but a number of them have been carefully taken down 
and preserved in the museums. 

When these houses were first uncovered, many pieces 
of furniture remained in them; although according to 
our ideas, the Roman rooms must have seemed rather 
bare for comfort. We should have found only a few 
chairs, some small tables, three couches in the dining- 
room, some beds or couches in the bedrooms, and here 
and there high stands for their queer oil lamps. The 
form of these articles, however, was often most grace- 
ful; and at times they were made of rich material and 
with great skill of workmanship. Besides such larger 
pieces of furniture, numerous smaller articles have been 



THE REMAINS OF ROME, 247 

found, as the work of unearthing the city has gone on, 
— among them cooking vessels, vases, cups, and fine 
glasses, combs, hairpins, polished metal mirrors, and 
pieces of jewelry. 

The shops of Pompeii are as interesting as the 
private houses. Most of these are only small rooms 
in the front of the houses, and are entirely 
open toward the street. Usually each shop 
displays a sign; the milk store, a wooden 
goat, and the wine shop a large jar. A 
snake before another shop shows that it 
has been a drug store, and a row of hams 
is the sign of an eating house. Three 
bakeries have been discovered, and these 

.J . , ^\^ \^ J r ^U SPOONS FROM 

give us some idea or now the bread or the pompeh. 
Romans looked; for in the oven of one of 
them, eighty-three loaves were discovered, black and 
charred, but still keeping their original shape. A 
washing and dyeing shop has also been found, for the 
care of the woolen garments which 
were almost the only kind worn. 
There the stone tubs may still be 
seen waiting for their contents, 
while on the walls are pictures of 
men standing in them and stamp- 
DRiNKiNG BOWL FROM jng with their feet, to show how 

POMPEII. ,, J • U- 

they were used in washing garments. 
In one way the people of Pompeii were very much 
like some thoughtless boys of our own day. They 
loved to scratch and write on the walls of the houses 
of the town, — which, indeed, must have offered tempt- 
ing chances to all by being out upon the sidewalk. 




248 



THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 



LAMP AND STAND. 



So here we find verses from the poets; 
and there, letters of the Greek alpha- 
bet, written by boys too small to 
reach high up on the walls. In 
many places advertisements are 
scratched in the plastering, and 
announcements of gladiator fights, 
and performances in the theater. 
Occasionally, too, we find comic 
pictures such as the one in which 
a gladiator is seen coming down the 
steps of the amphitheater, with a 
palm leaf of victory in his right 
hand. Such drawings and inscrip- 
tions are often found on the ancient 
buildings of Rome also. There, as 
at Pompeii, they must have been the 
work of the common people and the 
young boys, for the writers are usu- 
ally very uncertain of their grammar 
and spelling. 

The old Roman life has been kept 
for us better in the city of Pompeii 
than anywhere else; for at Rome 
itself, the buildings, furniture, tools, 
and ornaments changed with the 
passing centuries. People continued 
to live in the greater city and their 
personal belongings varied with the 
customs of the different ages. Now 
only a few grea*t monuments of the 
past remain among them; though one 



THE REMAINS OF ROME. 



249 



cvho did not know the later history of Rome might 
wonder how the magnificent buildings of the older town, 
solidly built of stone and marble, could have been so 
nearly destroyed, even in such a long space of time. 

For many hundreds of years after the Roman empire 
of the west had come to 
an end, the people of 
the city knew little of 
the past, and cared still 
less about it. They used 
the old temples for 
churches, changing 
them to suit their pur- 
poses; and they tore 
down -the finest build- 
ings of the older city, 
in order to get stone for 
use in building new ones 
of their own. There is 
no doubt that, in this 
way, the Romans them- 
selves have done more 
harm to the old city 
than all the armies that 
have ever captured it. 
If we could only learn 

the history and the former use of each of the mar- 
bles, stones, and bricks, of which the palaces and 
churches of modern Rome are built, our knowledge of 
the city of the C^sars would be almost complete. 

In the fifteenth century the Church of St. Peter, the 
grandest in the world to-day, was begun at Rome, and 




DRAWING ON THE OUTER WALL OF 
A HOUSE IN POMPEII. 



250 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

rose slowly for more than two hundred years before 
it reached completion. The building of this church 
alone caused more destruction to the remains of ancient 
Rome than the ten centuries of ignorance that had 
gone before. Of the huge masses of marble of every 
color and size used in it, not an inch was dug from the 
quarries in modern times. They were all taken from 
the ancient buildings, many of which were leveled to 
the ground for the sake of one or two pieces only. At 
this time, also, the greatest sculptors that Italy has 
ever seen were flourishing; and they too found marbles 
ready to their hand in the fallen columns of the ancient 
temples. In this way, the materials of the most beau- 
tiful Christian chapel in the world were taken from the 
tomb of Emperor Hadrian. 

If you ever go to Rome, and see the great arching 
dome of St. Peter's, and the other beautiful sights of 
the modern city, you must 'remember this. The new 
Rome which the eye sees contains the Rome of 
ancient times beneath its soil and in its greatest build- 
ings, in something of the same way in which our lan- 
guage holds the old Latin words, changed into a 
different form, and put to fresh uses in our speech. 
At first glance we see only that which is new, and we 
think that the old has completely perished; but, as we 
learn more and are able to see more clearly, we find 
that the past is also there. 



S UMMA RIES OF CHA P TERS, 251 



SUMMARIES OF CHAPTERS. 

I. — The Peninsula of Italy. 

1. Position, size, and shape ; comparison with Greece and Spain. 

2. Chmate. 

3. Surface : the valley of the River Po ; the Apennine mountains ; 

the plains. 

4. Rivers: general character; the River Tiber. 

5. Coast lands: in the northwest; about the mouth of the Tiber; 

in the south ; the eastern coast ; the lands about the mouth 
of the Po. 

6. Early governments in Italy ; the city of Rome. 

II. — Romulus and the Beginning of Rome. 

1. Difficulty of learning how and when Rome was founded ; the 

belief of the Romans. 

2. Early life of Romulus. 

3. Founding of the city. 

4. Seizure of the Sabine women; war; the Sabines settle at 

Rome. 

5. The rule of Romulus. 

6. His disappearance. 

III. — NuMA, the Peaceful King. 

1. Election of Numa. 

2. His character and policy. 

3. The Roman religion; the gods Jupiter, Mars, Juno, Minerva, 

Vesta, and Janus. 

4. The worship of the gods arranged by Numa: the Vestal 

Virgins ; the dancing priests of Mars. 

5. Death of Numa. 

IV. — The Last of the Kings. 

I. New wars: their lesson for the Romans; Alba Longa 
destroyed. 



252 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

2. New walls ; sewers ; the temple on the Capitol. 

3. The Sybilline books. 

4. Tarquin the Proud, the seventh king. 

5. Tarquin driven out, and a republic set up. 

V. — The War with Lars Porsena. 

ic Plot of the young nobles to restore Tarquin ; the judgment 
of Brutus. 

2. Lars Porsena aids Tarquin. 

3, Horatius at the Bridge. 

VI. — The Stories of Mucius and Clcelia. 

1. The story of Mucius. 

2. Lars Porsena makes peace. 

3. The story of Clcelia. 

4. The last war with Tarquin ; Castor and Pollux. 

VII. — Secession of the Plebeians. 

1. Patricians and plebeians. 

2. The grievances of the plebeians. 

3. Struggles between the classes. 

4. The secession to the Sacred Mount 

5. Tribunes appointed to protect the plebeians. 

6. Continued struggles. 

VIII. — The Story of Coriolanus. 

1. Early life of Caius Marcius. 

2. How he gained the name Coriolanus. 

3. His struggle with the plebeians; he is sent into exile. 

4. He leads the Volscians against Rome. 

5. Rome saved by Veturia. ^ 

IX. — The Family of the Fabii. 

1. Roman families. 

2. The Fabii and the plebeians. 

3. The Fabii march against the Veientians. 

4. Destruction of the Fabii. 



S UMMA RIES OF CHA P TERS, 253 

X. — The Victory of Cincinnatus. 

1. The wars with the ^quians. 

2. A Roman army entrapped. 

3. Cincinnatus made Dictator. 

4. His victory over the ^quians. 

5. Cincinnatus lays down his power. 

XI.— The Laws of the Twelve Tables. 

1. The early Roman law; grievances of the people. 

2. Struggle to have the laws made public. 

3. The "Ten Men" chosen. 

4. The Twelve Tables published. 

5. Their provisions. 

6. Growth of the Roman law ; its influence. 

XII. — How Camillus Captured Veil 

1. Rome's wars with Veii; the long siege. 

2. The Alban lake and the oracle of Apollo. 

3. Draining the Alban lake. 

4. Camillus captures Veii. 

5. Removal of the gods to Rome. 

6. Camillus and the treacherous schoolmaster. 

7. Camillus quarrels with the people ; his exile. 

XIII.— The Coming of the Gauls. 

1. The home of the Gauls. 

2. Their appearance and manner of fighting. 

3. Settlement of the Gauls in northern Italy. 

4. The Gauls before Clusium ; action of the Roman ambassadors. 

5. The Gauls march upon Rome. 

6. The battle ; defeat and flight of the Romans. 

XIV.— The Gauls in Rome. 

1. Dismay in the city ; the Roman plans. 

2. The Gauls enter Rome ; the old men in the Forum, 

3. Slaughter of the old men ; burning of the city. 

4. Siege of the Capitol. 



254 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HHLS, 

5. Camillus's victory over a band of the Gauls; the messenger 

to the Senate. 

6. The attempt of the Gauls to surprise the Capitol ; its failure. 

7. The Gauls agree to depart from Rome ; their terms. 

XV. — Rebuilding the City. 

1. Despair of the people ; proposal to remove to Veii 

2. Speech of Camillus. 

3. Decision to remain at Rome. 

4. Rebuilding the city. 

5. Wars with the neighboring peoples ; victories of Camillus. 

6. The last war of Camillus ; his noble spirit. 

7. Death of Camillus ; his ser\nces to Rome. 

XVI.— The New Rome 

1. Recovery of Rome from her misfortunes. 

2. End of the struggle between the plebeians and patricians. 

3. The building of aqueducts. 

4. Roman roads ; the Appian Way. 

5. What Rome learned from other nations. 

6. Devotion of the Romans to their city: the story of Marcus 

Curtius ; the sacrifice of Decius Mus. 

XVII. — The War with PyrrhuSo 

1. The Greeks of Southern Italy. 

2. Rome's quarrel with Tarentum^ 

3. Tarentum calls in King Pyrrhus. 

4. The first battle with Pyrrhus; the Roman and the Greek 

modes of fighting ; defeat of the Romans. 

5. Embassy of Cinias to Rome ; speech of Appius Claudius. 

6. Fabricius and P>Trhus. 

7. Second battle with Pyrrhus ; the Romans again defeated. 

8. Pyrrhus in Sicily. 

9. The third battle; victory of the Romans; Pyrrhus leaves 

Italy. 
10, Capture of Tarentum ; Rome the ruler of the peninsula. 



S UMMA RIES OF CHA P TERS. 255 

XVIII. — Rome and the Carthaginians. 

1. The Carthaginians: their mother-country; their voyages; 

their inventions ; the city of Carthage. 

2. Rivalry with Rome in Sicily ; beginning of the first war. 

3. Strength of the two peoples. 

4. The Romans build a fleet; the "crows" ; Roman victories. 

5. Regulus in Africa ; his capture. 

6. Embassy of Regulus to Rome ; his death. 

7. Length of the war ; Ro'man misfortunes. 

8. The Romans build a new fleet ; its victory. 

9. The treaty of peace. 

XIX. — The War with Hannibal. 

1. Civil war at Carthage ; Hamilcar. 

2. Hamilcar goes to Spain ; the oath of Hannibal. 

3. Carthage conquers Spain ; Hannibal becomes commander of 

the army. 

4. Beginning of the second war between Rome and Carthage. 

5. Hannibal's plans. 

6. His march across the Alps. 

7. Arrival in Italy ; his successes. 

8. Roman fear of Hannibal. 
Causes of Hannibal's failure; his recall. 
Scipio Af ricanus ; defeat of Hannibal at Zama. 
Terms of peace. 
Last years of Hannibal ; his death. 

XX. — Rome Conquers the World. 

1. Rome*s gains from Carthage. 

2. Conquest of Northern Italy and Southern Gaul. 

3. Conquest of Macedonia. 

4. The Romans in Asia Minor and in Egypt. 

5. The third war with Carthage ; destruction of the city ; Roman 

power in Africa. 

6. Good results of Roman rule. 

7. Effects of the conquests on the Roman generals; on the 

common soldiers. 



256 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 

8. -^milius Paullus : his reforms ; his victories over Macedonia ; 

his just dealings. 

9. The triumph of ^milius. 

XXI. — The Gracchi and their Mother. 

1. Roman marriage customs. 

2. Marriage of Tiberius Gracchus and Cornelia, daughter of 

Scipio Africanus; death of Gjacchus; Cornelia and her 
children. ^ 

3. Young Tiberius Gracchus; his service in the army. 

4. Troubles of the Roman farmers ; slavery ; decay of the people. 

5. Tiberius Gracchus elected tribune ; he attempts to cure these 

evils. 

6. Mistakes of Tiberius; he is put to death; character of the new 

party struggles at Rome. 

7. Caius Gracchus; his election as tribune; his reforms; his 

death. 

8. Conduct of Cornelia. 

XXII. — The Wars of Caius Marius. 

1. Caius Marius; the eagle's nest; the saying of Scipio JEmiW' 

anus. 

2. Marius and the war against Jugurtha ; his first consulship. 

3. The invasion of the Germans. 

4. Victories of Marius over the Germans. 

5. Marius's sixth consulship; his failure as a statesman. 

6. Civil war between the parties of Marius and Sulla. 

7. The victories of Sulla; wanderings of Marius; departure of 

Sulla. 

8. Return of Marius to Rome ; his cruelties ; his seventh consul- 

ship and death. 

9. Return of Sulla ; his terrible vengeance ; sufferings of Italy. 

XXIII. — Cicero, the Orator. 

1. Birth of Cicero; his home life and training. 

2. Roman schools ; Cicero's life till he was fifteen. 

3. Cicero in the law-courts. 

4. His first case; his fear of Sulla's" anger; travels in Greece. 

5. Cicero enters politics ; trial of Verres. 



SUMMARIES OF CHAPTERS. 257 

6. His election as consul; Catiline's conspiracy. 

7. Evils of Roman government ; Cicero's plans. 

8. New civil wars; Cicero's course. 
g. Cicero's death ; his character. 

XXIV. — Julius C^sar, the Conqueror of Gaul. 

1. Caesar's youth ; Sulla wishes to put him to death. 

2. Caesar in the East ; his first training in war. 

3. His adventure with the pirates. 

4. Caesar at Rome ; his habits. 

5. Caesar made overseer of the public games. 

6. Character of the games: the chariot races; the wild beast 

hunts ; the gladiatorial combats. 

7. Caesar and Pompey; Caesar elected consul, and made 

governor of Gaul. 

8. Condition of Gaul. 

9. Caesar's victory over the Swiss. 

10. His march against the Germans; trouble with his soldiers. 

11. Extent of his conquests; expeditions into Germany and 
^ Britain. 

12. Caesar's character as a general. 

XXV. — C^SAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 

1. Failure of the government of Rome ; the remedy. 

2. Pompey joins the party of the Senate ; plans against Caesar. 

3. Caesar crosses the Rubicon ; the second civil war begins. 

4. Flight of Pompey to Greece ; Caesar goes to Spain. 

5. Caesar follows Pompey to Greece; defeat and death of Pom. 

pey. 

6. Further conquests of Caesar ; mutiny of his soldiers. 

7. Caesar's four-fold triumph. 

8. Caesar as Emperor ; his reforms. 

9. Plot against Caesar ; his death. 
10. His character. 

XXVI. — Rome in the Time of Augustus. 

1. Struggles after Caesar's death ; his nephew becomes Emperor. 

2. The gfood rule of Augustus ; boundaries of the Empire. 

3. Literature under Augustus ; the poet Horace. 



258 THE CITY OF THE SE YEN HILLS, 

' 4. A day in Rome : clients and the morning reception ; the 
business in the Forum; the mid-day rest; exercise in the 
Field of Mars ; the baths ; the banquet. 

XXVII. — The Empire after Augustus. 

1. The successors of Augustus; Nero. 

2. The Good Emperors: Trajan; Hadrian; Marcus Aurelius. 

3. Decline of the Empire; danger from the Germans; the 

emperor Diocletian. 

4. Constantine the Great ; the Christian religion ; Constantinople. 

5. Division of the Empire; attacks of the Germans; fall of the 

Empire of the West. 

6. The German conquest paves the way for modern Europe. 

XXVIII.— The Christians and the Empire. 

1. Spread of Christianity in the Empire. 

2. Attitude of the government; ''To the Uons with the Chris- 

tians!" 

3. Persecution under Nero. 

4. The Catacombs. 

5. Bravery of the Martyrs ; Polycarp. 

6. Failure of the persecutions to check the growth of Christianity. 

7. The Empire becomes Christian; Constantine; end of the 

old religion. 

XXIX. — The Remains of Rome. 

1. Roman remains: language, laws, ruins. 

2. Eruption of Vesuvius, 79 a. d. 

3. Discovery of the buried cities ; Pompeii. 

4. Streets and public buildings of Pompeii 

5. The private dwellings. 

6. Pictures and furniture. 

7. Pompeiian shops. 

8. Writings on the walls. 

9. Disappearance of the ancient remains at Rome, 
10. The old in the new. 



CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE, 



CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE. 



For the sake of completeness, some names and events have 
been introduced into this outline which are not mentioned in the 
text. These are distinguished by being printed in italics, 

B.C. 

753. Rome founded (legendary date). 

753-509- Rome under the rule of Kings: Romulus, Numa Pom- 
pilius^ Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Targuinius 
Priscus, Servius Tullius, Tarquihius Superbus (Tar- 
quin the Proud). 

509. The Kings driven out, and a republic set up. 

509-345. Frequent wars with the Etruscans, Volscians, ^quians, 
and other neighboring peoples. Struggle for existence 
during the first sixty years ; after that, neighboring coun- 
try gradually conquered. 

494. Secession of the plebeians to the Sacred Mount. Creation 
of the tribunes of the people. 

451. Ten men {Decemvirs) apjx)inted to rule the state and pub- 
lish the laws; the Twelve Tables of the Law. {Misrule 
of Appius Claudius; the story of Virgi?iia. ) 

396. Capture of Veil by Camillus. 

390. Battle by the brook A Ilia, and capture of Rome by the 
Gauls. 

367. Plebeians admitted to the consulship, {la7us of Licinius 
and Sextius), 

343-290. Three wars with the Sajnnites {a ?nou?ttain people of 
Southern Italy), Revolt and conquest of the Latin 
neighbors of Ro7ne, The Romans become the chief 
people i?t Italy. 

282-272. War with King Pyrrhus; battles of Her ac lea, Auscu- 
lum, and Be7ieventum; conquest of Tarentum. Rome 
now mistress of the peninsula of Italy. 



260 THE CITY OF THE SEVEA HILLS. 

264-24T. First War with Carthage. Rome gains Sicily and 

(later) Sa?'dinia. 
225-222. Cis-Alpine Gaul (the valley of the Po) conquered. 
218-201. Second War with Carthage. Haainibal marches into 

Italy; battles of Ticmics^ Trebia, a7id Lake Trasimenus; 

battle of Cannae; Roman victories in Spain and Sicily; 

Hannibal's reinforcements defeated in the battle of the 

Metaiiriis; Roman victories in Africa; recall of Hanni- 
bal ; battle of Zama. 
200-168. Wars with Macedonia. Battle of Cynoscephalce; Greek 

states set free from Macedonia; victory of ^milius 

Paullus over King Perseus at Pydna. (Macedonia made 

a Roman province, 146 b.c.) 
192-189. War with Syria (in Asia). 
149-146. Third War with Carthage. Capture and destruction 

of the cit}^ by Scipio ^mitia^ius, 
146. War with Greek states {Achcean league), Destructio7i 

of Corinth. 
143-133. Wars with the tribes of Spaifi. 
133. Tiberius Gracchus elected tribune. 
123. Caius Gracchus elected tribune. 
111-105. War with Jugurtha, in Africa. 
113-101. Wars with German tribes {Cimbrz and Teutones), 

Victories of Marius at Aquce Sextice (102), and Ver- 

cellcB (loi). 
90-88. Revolt of the Italians: Rome forced to ad?nit the7n to 

citizenship. 
88-64. Three wars with King Mithradates of Pont us {in Asia 

Minor). The first war was brought to an end by Sulla; 

the third by Pompey, by whom Pontus was annexed to 

the Roman territory. . 
88-82. Civil war between Sulla (party of the nobles) and 

Marius (party of the people). 
80-72. Rebellion in Spain {tc7ider Sertorius\\ put down by 

Pompey. 
73-71. Rebellion of gladiators and slaves about Mt. Vesuvius 

(under Spartacjis) ; put down by Pompey. 
67. Pompey overcomes the pirates. 



CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE. 261 

66-62. Plot of Catiline at Rome; Cicero consul. 

60. Agreement between Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus {first 

triu77iv irate). Caesar elected consul. 
58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar. 
49-48. Civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Defeat of 

Pompey at Pharsalus. Caesar becomes sole ruler of 

Rome (emperor). 
48-45. War against the followers of Pompey in Africa and Spain. 
44, March 15. Caesar slain. (Brutus and Cassiiis, leaders of the 

plot.) 
42. Brutus and Cassius defeated by Octavius (the nephew of 

. Caesar) and Antony, in the battle of Philippi. 
31-30. War between Octavius and Antony. Defeat of Antony 

at Actium. Octavius becomes Emperor, and takes the 

name Augustus. 

il AD [ Augustus, emperor. 

54-68. Nero, emperor. Fire at Rome; persecution of the Chris- 
tians. 
98-117, Trajan, emperor. 

1 17-138. Hadrian, emperor. 

1 61-180. Marcus Aurelius, emperor. 

284-305. Diocletian, emperor. 

323-337. Constantine the Great. The empire becomes Chris- 
tian; founding of Constantinople as the capital of the 
empire. 

375. The German tribes begin to come into the Empire in large 
numbers. 

395. The Empire permanently divided into a Western Empire, 
with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern Empire, with 
its capital at Constantinople. 

410. Rome plundered by the Goths under Alaric, 

476. End of the Western Empire. 



262 



THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 



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\- Second War with Carthage( 218-201 b.c). 

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- -- i. Augustus, Emperor (31 b.c-14 a.d.). - 



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End of Western Empire (476 a.d.). 



OFFICERS UNDER THE REPUBLIC. 263 



OFFICERS UNDER THE REPUBLIC. 

1. Consuls, two: Elected for one year, and acted as heads 
of the state, and commanders of the army. Patricians only could 
be chosen, at first; after 367 b. c. both might be. and one must 
be, Plebeian. 

2. Dictator, one: Appointed in time of danger or for a 
special purpose; could hold office for six months, but usually 
resigned before that, as soon as the work was done. The Dictator 
held the highest power in the state, the consul and all other officers 
being under his orders. He usually appointed a "Master of the 
Horse" as his second in command. 

3. Tribunes, ten: Established 494 b. c. Elected for one 
year; must be Plebeians; had the right to "veto" any proceeding ; 
their persons were sacred. 

4. Other Officers: Two Censors, elected every fifth year, 
to take a census of the people, and revise the lists of the Senate, 
the tribes, etc. Four iEdiles, who kept order in the city, and had 
charge of the public buildings and markets ; two of these, called 
curule cediles, also had charge of the games and gladiatorial 
shows. One or more Praetors, who acted as judges at Rome, and 
served as governors of the provinces. 



ASSEMBLIES. 

I. Assemblies of the People. 

1. Assembly of the People by Curies, or groups of families. 
This was made up only of Patricians, and soon lost its power in 
the state. 

2. Assembly of the People by Centuries. Servius Tullius 
divided all of the free Romans, both Patricians and Plebeians, into 
groups or centuries, according to their wealth. In the assembly 
of the Centuries, the vote was taken by these groups, so that 



264 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. 

Plebeians and Patricians both voted in this body. The power in 
the state gradually passed from the assembly of the Curies to this 
new assembly, and it came to be the body which made laws, 
elected officers, declared war, and concluded peace. 

3. Assembly of the People by Tribes. Besides being divided 
into classes by their wealth, the Romans were also divided into 
twenty-six tribes, according to their places of residence. In the 
assembly of the Tribes, the Plebeians alone took part at first, and 
the assembly had little power beyond electing the Tribunes. 
Gradually the Patricians were admitted to it, and it increased in 
importance till it could make laws which were binding on both 
Patricians and Plebeians. It ended by becoming the most 
important of the assemblies of the people. 

II. The Senate. 

This body was composed of the chief men of Rome, especially 
those w^ho had filled the offices of Consul, Praetor, and the like. 
Vacancies were filled up by the Censors, who also had power to 
expel unworthy members. Under the Republic, there were three 
hundred Senators, at first, but the number was aftdrward 
increased. The Senate watched over the government, and 
advised both the people and the officers of the state. It came to 
be the most powerful body in Rome, but from time to time the 
people asserted their power against it, 



INDEX. 



Note. — In indicating the pronunciation of proper names in this Index, 
a, e, i, 6, u, f^ denote the short sound of these letters, and a, e, I, 6, ti, y, their 
loug sounds; a, is as in/ar, e as in her, q like s, € like k^ g like/, and g like z. 
The diphthongs SB and ce are to be pronounced like e. 

.ffi-mil i-us Paul us, 152-157, 166. 

.£-qui'ail§, wars with, 65 ; victory of Cincinnatus over, 69. 

Alba Lon'ga, 13, 15; destruction of, 27. 

Al'ban, Lake, 77, 79' 

Ap pi-an Way, no, 120. 

Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us, no, 120-121. 

Aqueducts, building of, 108-110. 

Au-gUS tus, rule of, 212-215. 

Banquets, 210-222. 

Baths, Roman, 220. 

Books, Roman, 29, 176. 

Br 1 tain, invaded by Julius Caesar, 196; conquest of, 2x5; Hadrian in, 226. 

Bru^tus (the elder), heads rebellion against Tarquin, 30-32; judgment of his 
sons, 35. 

Bru'tus, Mar'CUS, plots against Caesar, 2r 9-210. 

Qse'gar, "Ga'ius Juli-US, youth of, 184-187; and the public games, 187-191: 
alliance with Pompey, 191-192; governor of Gaul, 192-196; character as a 
general, 197-198; his writings, 198; war with Pompey, 201-204; ^^s rule of 
the Ktnpire, 182, 206-209; his death, 210; character, 210-211. 

Calendar, reformed by Csesar, 208. 

Ca-mlllus, appointed Dictator, 79; takes Veii, 80; other wars of, 81-83; goes 
into exile, 83; victory over the Gauls, 94; again Dictator, 95; alleged rescue 
of Rome, 98; speaks against removal to Veii, 99-100; last wars of, 102-105; 
death, 106, 108. 

Capitol, temple on, 29; defended against the Gauls, 91-97. 

Carthaginians, 125-127; first war with, 127-134; conquer Spain, 135-136; second 
war with, 137-146; third war with, 150-151; destruction of their city, 151. 

Cas'tor and Pollux, 44, 45. 

Cat'a-combs, 234-235. 

Catl-line, conspiracy of, 179-180, 182. 

Ca't5, stirs up third war with Carthage, 150. 

Christianity, spread of, 231, 237-238. 

Christians, persecution of, 232-237. 

gi^'e-ro, 173-183, 187. 

265 



266 INDEX, 

<?In-5ln-na'ti, Society of the, 70. 

<JJin-9in-na tus, made Dictator, 67; victory over the .^quians, 69; his triumph, 

69-70. 
<J)in e-as, minister of Pyrrhus, 119-121. 
Clients, 217. 
Cloe li-a, story of, 42-43. 
Clu Si-um, 36;' besieged by the Gauls, 87-88. 
Con Stan-tine tlie Great, 228, 237. 
Con-stan-ti-no'ple, founding of, 229. 
Consulship established, 32. 
Co-ri-0-la nus, story of, 52-58. 
Cor-ne lia, mother of the Gracchi, 159-160, 164-165. 
"Crows," of the Roman ships, 131. 
Curtius (Cur'shi-us), Mar'CUS, devotion of, 113, 157. 
Decius (De'shi-us), Mus, devotion of, 113-114. 
Dictator, 43, 67-68, 79, 95. 
Di-o-cle tian, (shan), 228, 234 
Education, Roman, i73-i77- 
E-ge ri-a, nymph, 22, 23. 
Egypt, Roman influence in, 149-150, 203. 

Fa bi-i, family of, 59; march against the Veientians, 63-64; massacre of, 64. 
Fa'bi-us, Kfieso, 60, 63. 

Fabricius (Fa-brish-i-us) at camp of Pyrrhus, 121-122. 
Families, Roman, 59, 60. 

Fii ri-us, Lucius (Ivu'shi-us), colleague of Camillus, 102-103, 105. 
Games, public, 181, 187-190. 
Gaul, conquest of, 148, 192-196. 
Gauls, 85-86; settlement in Italy, 87; attack Clusium, 87-88; defeat the 

Romans, 89-90; plunder Rome, 92-93; attempt upon the Capitol, 95-96; 

withdraw from Rome, 97. 
German tribes, invade Gaul, 168; defeated by Marius, 169-170; wars of Marcus 

Aurelius with, 227; settle within the Kmpire, 228-229; plunder Rome, 229; 

overthrow the Western Empire, 229-230. 
Gladiators, fights of, 188-190; rebellion of, 191. 
Gracchus (Gr5c us), Ca ius, 163-164. 
Gracchus, Ti-be'ri-us, 161-163. 
Greece, comes under Roman rule, 149. 
Greeks, influence of on Rome, 20, 112, 177, 185; of Southern Italy, 115; war 

with, 117-124, 
Ha'dri-an, rule of, 226-227. 
Ha-mil'car, 135-136. 
Han'ni-bal, oath of, 136; becomes commander of the Carthaginian army, 136; 

marches into Italy, 138-141; successes of, 142-144; recalled to Africa, 144; 

defeated at Zama, 144-145; death of, 146. 
Horace, 216-223. 

HoratiUS, (Ho-ra'shi-us), defends the bridge, 37-39. 
Italy, geography of, 7-10; ancient city governments of, Ii«i2; extension of 



INDEX, 267 

Roman rule over, 115, 125, 147-148; condition in the time of the Gracchi, 161; 

rebellion put down, 172. 
Ju-gur'tha, war with, 167-168, 173. 
Lars Por'se-na, war with Rome, 35-43. 

Laws of the Twelve Tables, 72-76. 

Lictors, 35> 67. 

Lucretia, (Lu-cre'shi-a), 31. 

Mag-e-do ni-a, conquest of, 149, 152. 

M3e-9e nas, patron of Horace, 216, 217-218, 220. 

Manli-us, Marcus, saves the Capitol, 95-96, 97. 

Mar'cus Au-re li-us, 227, 234, 235. 

Ma'ri-us, Caius, 166-172, 184, 185. 

Marriage customs, 158-159- 

Mucius (Mu'shi-us), the left-handed (Scsevola), 41-42. 

Ne'ro, 224, 233-239. 

Nu^ma, election of, 19; character, 19-20; rule of, 20, 22-26. 

Oc-ta^Vi-US, opponent of Tiberius Gracchus, 162. 

Octavius, grand-nephew of Csesar, 212-214. See Augustus. 

Oracle of Derphi, 31, 77, 78- 

Pales-tine, conquered by Pompey, 231. 

Patricians (Pa-trish'ans), 46; oppress the plebeians, 47-48; struggles with, 

49-50, 51, 55-56, 60-61, 72, 73; end of struggles, 107-108. 
Perseus (Per^sus), King of Macedonia, 149, 152, 153, 156. 
Pirates, Caesar's adventure with, 186; overcome by Pompey, 191. 
Ple-belans, grievances of, 47-49; secession. 49, 51; continued struggles, 51; and 

Coriolanus, 55-56; and the Fabii, 60-61, 63; and the publication of the laws, 

73; end of struggles with the patricians, 107-108. 
Pol'j^-carp, martyr, 235-236. 

Pompeii (P6m-pa'ye), destruction of, 240-241; rediscovery of, 241-242; descrip- 
tion of, 242-248. 
Pom'pey, deeds of, 191; relations with Caesar, 192, 200-204; defeat and death, 

204. 
Private Life of the Romans, 215-223, 242-248. 
Public land, 47, 162. 
Pyrrhus (Pir'iis), war with, 117-124; predicts war between Rome and 

Carthage, 127-128. 
Reg'ii-lus, 132-133. 
Religion, Roman, 20-26. 
Remus, brother of Romulus, 15-16. 
Roads, Roman, iio-iii, 151. 
Rome, situation of, 12; founding, 13, 16-17; growth, 18, 27, 46; burned by the 

Gauls, 93; rebuilt, loi; improved by Augustus, 215; burned under Nero, 

224, 233; plundered by the Goths, 229; disappearance of ancient remains, 

248-250. 
R6m ti-lus, story of, 13-18; founds Rome, 16-17; rule of, 16-18. 
Sant)I-neg, seizure of the women of, 17, 159; war with, 17-18; settle at Rome, 

18; claim the kingship after Romulus, 19. 



268 INDEX, 

Sacred Mount, secession to, 49. 
Saturn, festival of, 122-123. 
Schools, 81-82, 174-176. 
Sgip'i-o ^-mil-i-a'nus, 166. 
Scipio Af-ri-can us, 144-145; 159- ^66. 

Senate, founded by Romulus, 18; rules iu hiti.-/e^;iu :i, 19. 

Sib yl-llne books, 29-30. 

Slavery, 47, 161, 173, 207, 217, 218, 219, 221, 233. 

Spain, conquered by the Carthaginians, 135-136; conquered by the Romans, 

144; rebellion in, 191 : Csesar in, 203. 
Sul'la, 171, 172, 177, 185. 
Swiss, defeated by Csesar, 193. 
Ta-ren turn, war with, 115, 124. 
Tar'quin the Proud, rule of, 30; revolt against, 31-32; attempts to regain his 

throne, 33-39. 43-45 ; death of, 45. 
Trajan, rule of, 226, 234. 
Tribunes, origin of, 50; powers of, 50-51. 
Triumph, of Cincinnatus, 69-70; of ^milius Paulus, 154-157; of Julius Csesar, 

205-206. 
Tul'lus, Volscian chief, 56, 57. 
Veil (Ve'yi), Roman wars with, 63-64; conquest of, 79-80; proposals to remove 

to, 99-100; destruction of, loi. 
Ver'gil, 220-221. 

Ver reg, prosecution of, by Cicero, 178. 
Vestal Virgins, training of, 24, 26, 92, 185. 
Ve-su'vi-us, eruption of, 241. 
Ve-tu'ri-a, mother of Coriolanus, 52, 53, 57, 58. 
Volscians (VSrshi-ans), wars with, 53-54, 57-5S. 
Za^ma, battle of, 144-145. 



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